Abstract
Background: In South Africa, school violence is a disturbing issue affecting the attainment of education objectives, begging for a solution because it compromises students’ and teachers’ safety. Integration of peace education into pre-service teachers’ training will provide them with the needed knowledge, skills and values needed to promote peace.
Aim: This study explores the integration of peace education into the pre-service teacher training programme at an open distance e-learning institution of higher learning in South Africa using the integrative theory of peace.
Setting: The study took place at an open distance e-learning institution of higher learning in South Africa with a focus on academics.
Methods: The study adopted a qualitative research approach. Six university academics were purposefully selected using semi-structured interviews. Data analysis and interpretation were carried out thematically.
Results: We found a growing recognition of integrating peace education into teacher training programmes. However, a lack of trained faculty lecturers, limited resources, curriculum overload, resistance to change and a lack of a guiding framework, among others, were found to be the major setbacks.
Conclusion: Overcoming the challenges with relevant interventions should be prioritised for the integration of peace education to achieve its goals. Managing both the institutional and structural challenges will also foster the successful integration of peace education in teacher training programmes within open distance e-learning institutions.
Contribution: This study shows that teacher training programmes need better support, resources and policies to include peace education. This will help create a more peaceful school environment in South Africa.
Keywords: open distance e-learning (ODeL); peace; peace education; school violence; pre-service teacher; South Africa.
Introduction
Over the last decade, peace education has been globally recognised as a crucial component in achieving sustainable development and promoting understanding, cooperation and harmony among individuals and communities (Amin, Jumani & Malik 2019). This educational approach equips individuals with the knowledge and skills needed to navigate and resolve conflicts, promoting a culture of peace and non-violence (Zamalieva 2020). However, its effectiveness depends on contextual relevance, as peace education is most impactful when tailored to a country’s specific social and cultural needs (Setiadi et al. 2017).
South Africa’s history of institutionalised racism, segregation and state-sanctioned violence has made peacebuilding a fundamental priority since its democratic transition in 1994 (Ndwandwe 2021). However, ongoing issues of violence, inequality and discrimination persist in communities and schools, negatively affecting education quality and student well-being (John 2018). Schools often mirror societal conflicts, becoming sites of violence that compromise the safety of learners and teachers. This underscores the urgent need for strategies to address these challenges.
A proactive approach to addressing these issues is to empower pre-service teachers with knowledge, values and skills in peace education through teacher training programmes. Empowering pre-service teachers with peace education has far-reaching implications beyond the classroom, as violence and conflict affect entire school ecosystems – including students, parents, school governing bodies (SGBs), local law enforcement and community leaders (UNESCO 2021). Research demonstrates that teachers trained in peace education act as multipliers of change, equipping students with conflict-resolution skills that extend to their families and peer networks (Johnson & Johnson 2005). For example, schools embedding peace education report reduced bullying incidents and improved stakeholder collaboration, as SGBs and police adopt restorative justice approaches modelled by teachers (Bajaj 2015; Morrison, Blood & Thorsborne 2005). Bolanle (2021) emphasises that training teachers is a fundamental strategy for disseminating peace education. This notion aligns with the United Nations’ commitment to global peace promotion, which has led to the establishment of various peace education initiatives, particularly within teacher education (Amin et al. 2019). As role models and agents of behavioural change, teachers play a crucial role in fostering student peace (Senapati & Paroi 2024). According to Jamal, Kiran and Naz (2023), teachers are central to promoting peace, while Zembylas, Charalambous and Charalambous (2016) assert that teachers cultivate values, such as tolerance, reconciliation and respect within their communities.
Research highlights the necessity of training teachers in peace education, as they serve as foundational figures in shaping societal values (Ali & Hussain 2021). Equipping teachers with universal values, such as justice, human rights and tolerance, is vital for fostering peaceful societies (Ajmal 2022; Deveci, Yilmaz & Karadag 2008). Despite its significance, peace education has not received adequate attention in South Africa (John 2018). There is a dearth of studies assessing the specific needs of peace education in teacher training and examining barriers to its integration within South African institutions. Scholars such as Msila (2011) and Okeke (2018) advocate embedding peace education in teacher training to empower teachers to disseminate peace messages effectively. To ensure the sustainability of peace education beyond pre-service training, it must be systematically embedded within both teacher education curricula and school subjects, supported by institutional policies and continuous professional development. Scholars emphasise that without structural integration, such as weaving peace concepts into History, Life Orientation or Literature, teachers will struggle to prioritise it amid an overcrowded syllabus (Msila 2011; Ndwandwe 2024b; Okeke 2018). Institutional reinforcement, like school-wide peace policies and peer-learning networks, helps institutionalise practices (UNESCO 2021), while ongoing training prevents skill attrition (Zembylas 2022). Similarly, Sufi, Kamaran and Altaf (2020) emphasise that integrating peace education into pre-service teacher training is essential for fostering peace capacity in classrooms and communities.
The rise of open distance e-learning (ODeL) in South Africa presents a transformative opportunity to expand educational access and promote peace education. Open distance e-learning provides a flexible, inclusive learning environment that removes barriers to higher education for individuals constrained by socio-economic, geographic and mobility challenges (Ntuli & Gumbo 2023). Oyebode and Ojo (2019) suggest that ODeL offers a viable platform for delivering peace education messages. Maboe (2017) describes ODeL as an organised, learner-centred approach that leverages technology – particularly the Internet – to provide accessible and affordable education globally. However, while ODeL offers flexibility and inclusivity, self-directed learning also challenges fostering interactive and engaging learning environments (Potokri & Adewale 2024) conducive to peace education. Ensuring pre-service teachers receive comprehensive peace education training requires strategic planning and a deep understanding of ODeL’s unique constraints.
Against this backdrop, the present study addresses a critical research question: How can peace education be effectively integrated into pre-service teacher training programmes within an ODeL context? Engaging with university academics, the study seeks to offer insights into improving peace education integration in pre-service training. These insights will inform policymakers, curriculum developers and teachers on best practices for promoting peace and social cohesion within distance education institutions of higher learning.
Literature review and theoretical framework
Theoretical grounding: The integrative theory of peace
This research is anchored on Danesh’s integrative theory of peace as a framework. It posits that peace, as an outcome of human cognitive, emotive and conative capabilities, can shape one’s worldview (Danesh 2006). In line with a peace-oriented worldview, aspects of peace, such as freedom and human rights, exhibit a particular essence. The theory consists of four sub-theories, which seek to emphasise the role of peace, what it can achieve and the realisable outcomes, namely: (1) peace as a psycho-social, moral, spiritual and political condition; (2) peace as the primary representation of a worldview rooted in unity; (3) a unity-based worldview as a prerequisite for a culture of peace and healing; and (4) peace as an all-encompassing form of lifelong education. Based on the theory orientation, education is vital in shaping an individual’s worldview, offering the essential life process structure (Danesh 2006). It is critical to acknowledge that human consciousness is shaped by a particular worldview, which is regarded as the key aspect of individual and social development. For this study, it can be argued that integrating peace education into pre-service training in the context of ODeL could empower future teachers with the knowledge, skills and attitude necessary to promote a culture of peace, address school violence and contribute to the creation of a more just and harmonious society, which becomes the argument of this article.
Unpacking the concept of peace education
According to Zembylas (2020), the concept of peace education lacks a universally recognised definition. Scholars such as Brantmeier and Lin (2008) argue that peace education is challenging to conceptualise among scholars because people’s perception of what peace entails impacts their understanding and description of the concept. Hence, the definition of peace education is not absolute as it is perceived differently by various people based on their different circumstances (Savir 2008).
Peace education can be defined as an interdisciplinary field of study involving both the formal and informal learning process within and outside the school setting aimed to transform people’s behaviour to create the conditions for peace by eliminating group prejudice, stereotypes, violence, exclusion and destruction (Nsikak-Abasi & Nneji 2010). It is deduced from this description that peace education aims to serve as a tool to transform people’s behaviour and violent inclination that often cause them to resort to violence and fuel violence. Peace education has the power to develop individuals with reflective and critical thinking abilities and to erase the spirit of militarism engraved in a culture of prejudice and all kinds of evil tendencies while inculcating a peaceful culture to establish harmonious living and peaceful co-existence among individuals (Anim 2022). Supriya and Kapani (2020) also view peace education as a process of acquiring values and knowledge that equip individuals with skills and attitudes to co-exist in peace and harmony.
Peace education is more than the absence of violence; it seeks to analyse the root cause of violence, promote justice and create sustainable peace (Jeong 2017). Ojha (2018) defines peace education from a behavioural point of view as inculcating values of impartiality, non-violence and respect for other fellow humans, which leads to peaceful socialisation. This implies that peace education aims to transform the attitude and behaviour of individuals from violence to peace. However, this requires individuals to be equipped with the relevant knowledge and desire to work towards attaining peace. In the context of this study, peace education is understood as an intervention aimed at empowering learners in school with knowledge and skills to resolve conflicts non-violently.
Barriers to integrating peace education in open distance e-learning teacher training
Despite the widespread recognition of the potential benefits of integrating peace education into pre-service teacher training programmes to empower pre-service teachers with knowledge, values and skills of peace education to promote empathy and foster a culture of peace among future generations, the literature indicates several obstacles for the integration of peace education in pre-service teacher training in the ODeL context (Deveci et al. 2008; Kilag et al. 2024; Ndwandwe 2024a). According to Nguyen (2020), the lack of resources, such as textbooks and teaching materials, educational materials or necessary funding for training programmes, and a lack of support, is viewed as a possible hindrance to the integration of peace education. The challenge in teacher training institutions is that they may not give peace education the same priority as other examinable subjects, such as the sociology of education or philosophy of education. This could limit the effort of university lecturers to fully integrate it into the curriculum (Kilag et al. 2024).
According to research, the issue of curriculum overload is another impediment to integrating peace education into pre-service teacher training programmes. This is because pre-service teacher training programmes struggle to cover dense content in academic subjects such as Pedagogy, Classroom Management and Educational Psychology. Integrating peace education could add another burden to an already packed curriculum. This is supported by Matindi (2013), who argues that the number of modules allocated to lecturers could hamper their desire to participate in peace education. The lack of trained faculty lecturers could be another obstacle to integrating peace education within pre-service teacher training programmes. Based on the literature, peace education requires lecturers who are well-versed in the pedagogy and knowledgeable about the content. For example, studies in Turkey conducted by Akar (2010) and Gök (2016) discovered that factors such as the lack of educated faculty members to teach peace education and limited financial resources were among the constraints hindering the integration of peace education into pre-service teacher training programmes. A study by Cook (2014) affirms that pre-service teachers with limited understanding and knowledge may struggle to integrate various dimensions into their classroom teaching. Wang (2018) indicates that pre-service teachers can become hesitant to participate in peace education as they find it stressful and challenging compared to other values in education, such as citizenship, environmentalism and multiculturalism, despite their closeness with peace education.
A critical but often overlooked obstacle is the mismatch between the pedagogical affordances of ODeL systems and the transformative requirements of peace education. Research underscores that while ODeL excels in delivering standardised content at scale (Moore & Kearsley 2012), its inherent structures often fail to support the relational, dialogic and experiential pedagogies essential for effective peace education (Bar-Tal & Rosen 2009; Zembylas 2022). For instance, asynchronous forums and pre-recorded lectures (common in ODeL) struggle to replicate the nuanced interactions (e.g. conflict resolution role-plays, empathy-building exercises) that face-to-face peace education necessitates (Harris & Morrison 2013; Lederach 2005). Institutional priorities exacerbate this gap: ODeL programmes frequently prioritise measurable outcomes and examinable content (Nguyen 2020), marginalising peace education’s focus on critical reflection and behavioural change (Bajaj 2008). Additionally, faculty in ODeL settings often lack training to leverage digital tools for participatory peace pedagogies (Akar 2010; Gök 2016), further widening the affordance disconnect. Without intentional redesign – such as integrating synchronous simulations (e.g. via Zoom or Virtual Reality [VR]) or collaborative digital storytelling platforms – ODeL risks reducing peace education to a perfunctory module rather than a transformative competency.
Research methods and design
A qualitative research approach (Lichtman 2023) was underpinned by the interpretative paradigm that was adopted in this research project, which is subjective. Based on Creswell and Creswell’s (2018) view, the qualitative approach is geared towards uncovering meanings and gaining insights into social and natural settings from the perspectives and experiences of participants. The researchers’ choice to use this approach was guided by the nature of the research problem and its ability to allow the researchers to interact with the participants in a social setting. In this study, the phenomenon of interest is the perspectives and experiences of participants regarding integrating peace education into pre-service teacher training programmes. Because of the nature of the study, a case study research design (eds. Denzin & Lincoln 2018) was employed to bring their perspectives and experiences on the topic under study.
Research sample and participants and data collection
Participants were purposefully selected from a population of 150 academic staff members who had more than 3 years of experience at the university and who occupy various academic positions, such as lecturers, senior lecturers, associate professors and full professors within various departments. Because purposeful sampling is often more time and cost-effective, six academic staff members were selected as the targeted population. According to Hennink, Hutter and Bailey (2020), unlike the quantitative approach, using a smaller sample is common in qualitative studies, which involves selecting participants with important characteristics. The participants are academic staff with over 3 years of experience in teaching or curriculum development for pre-service teachers. They voluntarily participated in the study.
To generate data for this research, a semi-structured interview was held with each participant via Microsoft Teams to complete the verbal engagement. The interviews were guided by open-ended data collection questions. This aligns with McMillan and Schumacher (2014), who regard interviews as advantageous because they enable the researcher to solicit reliable data on integrating peace education into teacher training. The researchers developed an interview guide for data collection to guide the conversation and capture relevant data effectively. The recorded interviews lasted between 35 min and 60 min each. After obtaining the academics’ consent, the recording functionality of Microsoft Teams was used to capture the data. The interview guide covered semi-structured interview questions as shown in Table 1.
Data analysis
Data analysis was performed using a thematic approach. As proposed by Creswell and Creswell (2018), the study followed two sequential steps to guide the analysis of the process. During the first stage, the data gathered from the semi-structured interviews were transcribed; the researchers then familiarised themselves with the data by reading the transcripts multiple times to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the participants’ responses, after which the transcript was coded to ensure the anonymity of the study participants. The second stage used verbatim quotes from participants to generate themes and categories. The themes were generated in response to the research question that guided this study, including the literature review and the study’s goal. Following the completion of these steps, the findings were written up.
Ethical considerations
The researchers complied with various ethical considerations before and during the data collection. McMillan and Schumacher (2014) view ethics as principles or belief systems that guide research behaviour. Ethical clearance approval was received from the the University of South Africa Ethics Review Committee (No. 2018/03/14/90060059MC). Then, participants were assured of anonymity and were informed that their participation in the study remained voluntary, and they were duly informed of their entitlement to withdraw from the study at any time without prior notification and without incurring any penalty. Pseudonyms were used to ensure the confidentiality and anonymity of the participants.
Presentation and discussion of findings
From the data gathered through the semi-structured interviews, three broad themes emerged, presented in this section: understanding of peace education, the significance of peace education and obstacles or hindrances to integrating peace education into ODeL contexts. We refer to the participants as Participant 1, Participant 2, Participant 3 and so forth.
Theme 1: Significance of peace education
The initial question aimed to probe the perceptions of university academics regarding the significance of integrating peace education into pre-service teacher training programmes within the ODeL context in South Africa. According to the participants’ perspectives, integrating peace education could significantly empower pre-service teachers to become agents of positive change in their classrooms, promoting peace and social cohesion in schools. The findings highlight the significance of using peace education as a tool to furnish pre-service teachers with knowledge and skills to deal with any form of violence, such as bullying, in their future teaching in schools. The findings are noted in the following statements made by the participants:
‘It is critical, especially given what is happening in our schools. We need to ensure that teachers have skills in conflict resolution, human rights, social justice and communication to deal with what is happening in our institutions, namely conflict and violence.’ (Participant 4)
‘It is significant in teacher training in ODeL because teachers are trained to teach the next generation. If we train them to foster peace education, that knowledge would be transferred to school-going children. We should infuse peace education into the school curriculum from an early stage incrementally, maybe in subjects such as Life Orientation up to the university level.’ (Participant 1)
Participant 4 made the following remark regarding the importance of integrating peace education:
‘Peace education is critical to empower pre-service teachers to have the qualities, skills and knowledge to address problematic issues in schools, you know, starting from bullying within schools, going up to calming learners and teachers and reducing bullying among themselves to bring peace in schools.’ (Participant 4)
Another participant voiced his strong belief in integrating peace education into pre-service teacher training programmes. He believes it would enhance the strong belief about the country’s constitution as fundamental for human rights and building strong, healthy families and societies:
‘If peace education can be taught, it could help to enhance our belief in the Constitution because it is about what we preach in our Constitution. This involves promoting healthy families, societies, and so on. So, learners must have all this knowledge and ensure they create peace in their natural environment.’ (Participant 4)
Participants also pointed out the importance of integrating peace education in pre-service teacher training programmes, as follows:
‘The significance of integrating peace education into pre-service teaching training programmes is to bring a concept like peace to them and equip them with the skills and attitudes necessary to foster an inclusive environment like South Africa. We see much violence in schools; we see much discrimination and intolerance towards certain cultures and diversity; so, what peace education does it brings all those elements together where we, as an institution, have the unique opportunity to equip teachers to teach peace education, skills and attitudes and help them embrace some of the key issues of non-violence and as combination and that dissonates towards diversity.’ (Participant 2)
‘In the context of pre-service teachers, peace education is significant because learners can be taught from a young age through the curriculum to relate with people from foreign countries. You know the concept of anti-xenophobia. Today, we have many schools where some learners are attacked because they come from other countries. Consequently, it is about finances and not promoting peace education. If two learners from different countries are fighting, it can spark serious consequences for the education system.’ (Participant 3)
In addition, evidence derived from Participant 2 indicates that peace education is significant in dealing with the effects of apartheid, which have contributed to breeding the culture of violence in the country. One participant made the following remarks:
‘Therefore, it brought an essential kind of education that must be taught in the open distance learning space because, you know, the constitution of South Africa comes from a background of apartheid where violence spillover over every aspect, sphere and fibre of society. Peace education is essential in our basic and higher education. I think we are still a nation characterised by anger.’ (Participant 2)
Participant 3 had the following to say regarding the advantages of integrating peace education:
‘The advantage of it will ensure that from a very young age, teachers will inculcate the principles of peace, the ability to relate to one another, patience, empathy, and dealing with antisocial behaviour.’ (Participant 3)
These findings concur with Maiyo et al. (2012) and Bolanle (2021), who opine that a fundamental strategy to educate many people in peace education is through providing training to teachers who would dispense messages of peace in education. Similarly, Zembylas, Charalambous and Charalambous (2011) reinforce the point by emphasising that teachers play a fundamental role in developing values, such as tolerance, peace, reconciliation and respect and modelling peace in their communities. Furthermore, there is consistency between what the participants mentioned and the study conducted by Ajmal (2022), who argues that peace education can equip students with important values such as respect, tolerance and ability to cooperate.
Theme 2: Component of peace education
This second section attends to the participants’ perceptions of possible components of peace education that could be integrated into pre-service training within the ODeL context in South Africa. The study discovered consensus among the participants that components or topics of peace education, such as conflict resolution, respect, anti-bullying and racism, non-violence, tolerance, emotional intelligence and dialogue as aspects that could be integrated into pre-service training within the ODeL context. The following responses support those findings:
‘I think one could teach conflict resolution skills because, remember, schools are diverse, and as a result, it will assist in terms of intercultural relationships where different races will be able to tolerate each other and their ability to resolve differences in a mature will help the education system.’ (Participant 3)
‘I think that, in terms of the components of peace education, it must deal with issues of respect, how to relate feelings to others, and how to resolve conflict non-violently.’ (Participant 1)
‘I guess conflict resolution skills or conflict resolution management. It is a skill that pre-service teachers can learn and, in turn, give back to students or learners when they join the profession.’ (Participant 2)
‘We can position ourselves towards teaching empathy, negotiation and problem-solving to navigate inter-relational perspectives relating to a peaceful environment or context.’ (Participant 4)
The above findings are in line with Amin et al.’s (2019) assertion that teachers can be trained in conflict resolution practices, empowering them with skills to resolve conflict non-violently and through peaceful means within the classroom and beyond. Johnson and Johnson (2009) assert that peace education can serve as a strategy to provide individuals with information, attitudes, values and behavioural competencies required to resolve conflict non-violently and establish a culture of peace and peaceful relationships with others. The findings also agree with Zembylas et al. (2011), who emphasise that teachers have a fundamental role in developing values, such as tolerance, peace, reconciliation and respect and by modelling peace in their respective communities. Furthermore, the findings are consistent with those of Chepkuto, Ombongi and Kipang (2014), who affirm that peace education is required for maintaining good relationships and promoting respect for other human beings, which is a prerequisite for violence prevention.
One participant suggested that pre-service teacher training programmes should prioritise the development of emotional intelligence and self-regulatory skills as part of the peace education component within the ODeL space:
‘Therefore, the syllabus must contain emotional intelligence. When I define peace education, I speak about its multidisciplinary kind of education, which means psychology will become part of the curriculum so that they know what happened and what it means to be emotionally intelligent in responding to different kinds of attacks that face you.’ (Participant 3)
The above findings link well with Gkora and Driga (2023), who affirm that peace education depends on and relates to the development of emotional intelligence and programmes that cultivate it.
Theme 3: Possible obstacles or barriers to the integration of peace education in open distance e-learning
As part of this study’s objectives, it was pertinent to probe the possible obstacles that could hinder the effective integration of peace education into pre-service teacher training programmes, particularly within the ODeL context in South Africa. The research findings identified several challenges, such as a lack of capacity or specialised trained teachers to deliver the content, resource constraints, curriculum overload, a lack of institutional support, resistance to change and a lack of a framework to guide the integration of peace education. This theme consisted of five sub-themes: lack of time, resource constraints, curriculum overload, lack of specialised trained teachers, lack of interaction and engagement and lack of institutional support and policy.
Lack of face-to-face interaction and limited social engagement
Evidence from the interviews indicates that the lack of face-to-face interaction and limited social engagement could pose a significant challenge that could hinder the effective integration of peace education into pre-service teacher training programmes, particularly within the ODeL context. The participants echoed their worry about the absence of real-time communication, which can limit meaningful discussion and peer learning on peacebuilding, conflict resolution and other essential components of peace education in ODeL. Other evidence reveals that the ODeL environment could provide limited opportunities for experiential learning activities, such as simulations, role plays and group discussions, which require active engagement. The difficulty of being unable to see and interpret human emotions on the online platform was also mentioned as a limitation. These findings are noted in the following statements made by participants:
‘Obviously, as an ODeL institution, we don’t have face-to-face interaction. So, open distance education relies heavily on online platforms, which may limit opportunities for meaningful face-to-face interactions and experiential learning activities essential to peace education. I want to underline the need for peace education because sometimes you need to see the person, and you need to see a person’s response in person as opposed to simply online, and that is how our skill is transferred.’ (Par | 
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