Abstract
Background: Teachers play a significant role in the achievement of any education policy. Their knowledge and understanding of inclusive education is important in pursuit of the goal towards inclusive education.
Aim: This study aims to identify the challenges experienced by educators implementing inclusive education in full-service schools.
Setting: A qualitative study consisting of N = 12 participants (four educators, four grade 6 learners and four support staff members) took place at a full-service school in Soweto, Johannesburg.
Methods: Semi-structured interviews and focus-group discussions were applied as part of the data collection methods. Thematic analysis was applied to analyse data. The following themes emerged: inadequate support for teachers at full-service schools, a lack of training for teachers and challenges with curriculum adaptation.
Results: The findings of this study indicate that educators do support inclusive education. However, they believe the Department of Education is not doing enough to support them in teaching and supporting learners with special educational needs. The situation is worsened by overcrowded classes, insufficient time to support learners and the pressures imposed on teachers by district officials. Thereby ignoring the special support required by learners with special educational needs.
Conclusion: To succeed with inclusive education the Department of Education needs to invest in teacher education programmes focused on capacitating teachers’ competency in teaching inclusively. Also, learners with special educational needs should be assessed using a curriculum specifically designed to meet their learning needs.
Contribution: This study contributes to the development of knowledge in inclusive education.
Keywords: full-service schools; learners with learning disabilities; special educational needs; inclusive education; special learning needs.
Introduction
The inception of democracy in South Africa compelled its government to prioritise equal rights for all, and the Department of Education was no exception, with its legacy of apartheid and inequalities (Department of Education 2001; Modiri 2013). To correct this, educational policies such as the Education White Paper 6: Special Needs Education: Building an Inclusive Education System and Training became a cornerstone to achieving inclusive education (Demetriou 2022). Inclusive education is defined as an education policy aiming to create equal access to education by ensuring that those with learning disabilities previously excluded on the basis of their disability are successfully integrated into mainstream education while provisions for their learning needs are met (Department of Education 2001). This led to a change in how education was perceived, many saw inclusive education as an education policy not only seeking to advance equality in education but a policy advancing issues of human rights (ed. Cole 2022). In addition, strategies to train and develop educators to become competent in teaching learners with special learning needs were introduced. Support programmes were also developed to support learners with learning disabilities transitioning into mainstream education. Furthermore, to accommodate learners with moderate needs of support for learning, full-service schools were introduced (Ayaya, Makoelle & Van der Merwe 2020). Full-service schools can be defined as mainstream schools equipped to teach learners with moderate needs of support in learning (De Ridder 2020). The idea behind full-service schools was to accommodate learners previously excluded from mainstream schooling systems, yet not accommodated in special schools (Department of Education 2001). This included learners diagnosed with dyslexia, dyscalculia and dysgraphia. Subsequently, to ensure success in implementing inclusive education, the Department of Education compelled its district offices to provide adequate support to schools by collaborating with school management teams and provide support to teachers (Mastropieri, Scruggs & Mills 2011). As such, schools are now required to ensure that all learners have access to education and this include learners with special educational needs (Mukhopadhyay, Nenty & Abosi 2012).
Theoretical framework
The theoretical framework for this study is based on Schlossberg’s transition theory (Barclay 2017). According to this theory, transition refers to any event resulting in changed relationships, routines, assumptions and roles. According to Anderson, Goodman and Schlossberg (2011), the goal of this theory is to ensure that those in transition experience a positive emergent growth during transition. This theory relates to this study in that the introduction of inclusive education has compelled a change in how educators teach and support learners in class. In addition, learners with learning disabilities also had to transition to their new learning environments since they were previously accommodated in special schools. According to this theory, the transition to inclusive education will be successful through a process called Taking Stock. Taking Stock is defined as a process by which transitioners examine their situation and coping resources. The process consists of four phases, namely: situation, support, strategies and self. The four phases are concerned with finding out about the current situation, the support required, how those in transition can navigate successfully into inclusive teaching and learning practices and how those in transition view themselves during transition.
The application of Schlossberg’s theory to this study will provide an opportunity to assess the situation faced by the educators and learners in transition. According to McLeskey and Waldron (2002), assessing the situation informs us by detailing whether those transitioning into inclusive education expect changes or not and how this is affecting their routines and relationships. Typically, those in transition often experience stress, anxiety and uncertainty. As such, it is important to identify the support structures for the educators during the transition to inclusive education. A strong support system has been found to be significant, especially during transitions (Waters, Lester & Cross 2014). Furthermore, it is also beneficial to understand the transition experience from the perspective of the educators instead of making assumptions. So, if educators are to transition successfully into inclusive teaching practices, they need to be self-aware of their beliefs, self-perceived abilities, perceptions and attitudes.
Teachers and inclusive education
The road to achieving inclusive education relies heavily on teachers’ ability to teach inclusively (Donohue & Bornman 2014). However, the introduction of the Education White Paper 6 placed significant demands on teachers as they had to adapt to new models of teaching, provide support to learners and manage classrooms (Louw & Wium 2015). Subsequently, many educators who qualified as teachers prior to inclusive education find themselves having to teach and support learners previously accommodated in special schools (Engelbrecht et al. 2015; Hugo & Mobara 2024). As such, more educators in South Africa are currently teaching learners with special educational needs without relevant qualifications and experience (Potgieter-Groot Visser & Lubbe-De Beer 2012). This has had a negative impact on the goal to build an inclusive education system since issues such as lack of adequate support for educators, shortage of resources and the lack of skills among educators are of great concern in South Africa (Mncube Lebopha & Titus 2020). Regardless, teachers have a responsibility to ensure that schools are conducive environments where an inclusive society is created (Miles & Singal 2010; Themane & Thobejane 2019).
Curriculum adaptation as a learning barrier
The teaching methods and the curriculum used to educate learners are very important in achieving inclusive education (Mitchell & Sutherland 2020). As such, a discriminatory curriculum that disadvantages a group of learners is ineffective for teaching and learning purposes (Motitswe 2012). Such a curriculum is characterised by inappropriate language of teaching, lack of teaching material and the use of inappropriate assessment tools, which fail to meet the needs of all learners. Therefore, it is important to ensure that inclusive teaching practices are applied in inclusive learning environments so that all learners may benefit (Bryant, Bryant & Smith 2019).
Evidence by Mukhopadhyay & Moswela (2016) showed that most educators use inappropriate methods of teaching in inclusive classrooms disregarding the needs of learners with special educational needs. Also, the teachers in the study revealed that they believe it is best to teach learners with learning disabilities using their indigenous languages, the assumption is that learners with special learning needs do not understand English. This evidence shows that the educators are operating with a deficit model, viewing learners with special learning needs as individuals who are not capable of learning. In addition, another study by Zwane and Malale (2018) revealed that the lack of appropriate teaching material hinders the goal of inclusive education. Another key aspect of inclusive education is the provision of tailor-made assessment. Assessment refers to the ways teachers and other people in learners’ education systematically collect and use information about learners’ level of achievement and development in different areas of educational experience (Broadfoot & Black 2004). The central purpose of assessment is to provide information on learner achievement and progress, thereby improving the process of learning and teaching. Inappropriate assessment procedures, such as using learning assessments designed for learners without learning disabilities, can also misrepresent learner ability. According to Janse Van Rensburg (2015), the professional teacher should not be engaged in the assessment of learners; rather, the focus should at all times be on assessment for learning. This means that it is important to break away from the performance-oriented perception of assessment when dealing with a learner who is experiencing learning difficulties of some kind. In conclusion, without an inclusive curriculum in place, teachers in full-service schools find themselves using assessment methods that do not take into account the needs of learners with special needs in their classrooms (Walton & Rusznyak 2016).
The lack of training for teachers in full-service schools
A study by Cooc (2019) showed that there has been improvement in opportunities for learners with disabilities globally; however, the lack of preparedness among teachers working with these learners is concerning. More than 50% of schools indicated that there is a shortage of teachers qualified to teach learners with special learning needs, while the educators themselves indicated that they are in need of professional development. These findings show that even though inclusive education was adopted more than 20 years ago, many teachers in South Africa still do not qualify to teach in inclusive schools (Pit-ten Cate et al. 2018). Furthermore, the South African Ministry of Education also recommended that inclusive education should be compulsory in teacher education programmes however, in practicality this is different (Mitchell & Sunderland 2020). Inclusive education programmes in universities are offered in isolation and as optional rather than compulsory courses throughout the teacher education curriculum (McKenzie et al. 2023). Subsequently, most teachers are placed in schools with no experience in teaching learners with special educational needs (Kelly et al. 2024).
According to De Mathews, Serafini and Watson (2021), school leadership has also been found to negatively halt the progress towards the achievement of inclusive education. The leadership style, management of the school and the pressures imposed on teachers by the school management team and the Department of Education through its district officials are contributing to failures in realising inclusive education. Moreover, factors such as overburdened educators, lack of effective leadership, lack of knowledge about inclusive education and the lack of commitment from the leadership are some of the concerns that have emerged as anti-inclusive education. As a result, teachers are often found confused, not sure if they should use their autonomy as qualified teachers and apply inclusive practices during lessons as additional support to learners or just continue with the lesson as outlined in the annual teaching plan as expected by management and the Department of Education (Kozleski & Waitoller 2010). In another study by Mahlo (2016), teachers revealed that they are in need of special training to enable them to be competent in supporting learners with special learning needs. Evidence has also shown that teachers who have not been trained to teach inclusively have negative behaviour and attitudes towards inclusive education (Van Reusen, Shoho & Barker 2000). According to Hull (2005), training needs to continue to provide assistance with different instruction and with modifying and adapting curricula to meet the needs of various learners. Furthermore, the absence of ongoing in-service training of educators often leads to insecurity, uncertainty, low self-efficacy and a lack of innovative practices in the classroom. Therefore, training offered to teachers at the pioneer schools was lamented by most teachers as they felt that the occasional workshops provided by the Department of Education were not enough to cover the vast and complex content and methods of the field of inclusive education (Hay et al. 2001).
Lack of support for teachers in full-service schools
Traditionally, it was believed that learners with disabilities belonged in special schools; hence, many educators currently face a challenge that most of them would have never imagined when they qualified as teachers (Harry & Klingner 2014; Savolainen et al. 2012). As a step towards inclusive education, teachers are expected to support learners with learning disabilities in mainstream education. However, studies have revealed that educators are finding it hard to provide support to learners with special learning needs; instead, they themselves are in need of support (Mavuso 2014; Ridgway 2017). The support of educators in an inclusive education environment can be defined as an increase in teachers’ capacity to meet the different needs of learners in schools (Mahlo 2011). According to Maseko and Fakudze (2014), the lack of support to educators is characterised by the unavailability of teaching resources, incompetent educators and the lack of teacher development programmes in inclusive education. Studies also revealed that teachers use their own personal funds to professionally develop themselves, showing how severe the lack of support is to teachers (Attard 2017; Mushayikwa & Lubben 2009). This situation is made worse by the fact that there is no reward from the employer in remuneration even after a teacher obtains a new qualification.
According to Florian (2008), teachers’ incompetence in inclusive education and the inadequate support from management structures are negatively impacting inclusion. While teachers do acknowledge the efforts made by the department through training workshops and deployment of district officials to schools to support educators, they still believe the support is not sufficient for teachers in inclusive schools (Valeo 2008). A study by Cologon (2022) also revealed that many educators are concerned about the ineffective support they are receiving from the Department of Education and the school management team. This lack of support can be attributed to several factors such as the lack of teacher development programmes specifically focused on supporting teachers in inclusive learning environments and the inflexible leadership styles from the school management teams (Kelly et al., 2019; Corral, Granados & Kruse, 2011). Through its rigid leadership style, the school management team shows little interest in advancing the rights of learners with special learning needs to learn (Corral Granados & Kruse 2011). The successful learning of learners with disabilities depends on the willingness and support provided by educators in inclusive learning environments. Therefore, for learners with special learning needs to succeed in mainstream learning environments, teacher support must be prioritised (Mfuthwana & Dreyer 2018).
Research methods and design
Method
As the study aimed to capture descriptions and understand the phenomenon through participants’ experience, qualitative research was applied.
Design
In this study, action research design known as participatory action research was used (Jacobs 2018). The rationale behind this research design is to bring about a change of attitude towards learners with learning disabilities and to encourage equality for people with disabilities in mainstream education systems.
Sampling
To identify suitable research participants, purposive sampling was used. The study’s sample population consisted of (N = 12) participants between 12 and 55 years old. This sample included four teachers (two adult male participants and two adult female participants), four learners (two boys and two girls aged 12 years and above) and four support staff employees of the school.
Data collection method
Based on the research question, data were collected as follows:
Semi-structured interviews
Semi-structured interviews were held with the educators. The sessions took place after school hours to ensure that the study did not interfere with the school programmes, and each interview was allocated an hour.
Focus group discussions
The focus group discussions were conducted with two groups from the research participants: (1) learners with special learning needs and (2) the support staff (cleaning staff and security personnel). The focus group discussions occurred at different times and dates, with 45 min allocated to the learners to accommodate their concentration span, while an hour was allocated to the support staff.
Observation
Given that I used a qualitative approach to observation, I started by recording observations by using an observation checklist, which allowed for comments. The intention was to collect data from learners and workers who might not be able to verbally express themselves because of the fear of victimisation or any other factor, by investigating any form of negative attitude, stigmatisation and discrimination against learners with special learning needs that hinders the achievement of an inclusive system in schools.
Data analysis
To analyse the data, thematic analysis was applied using the six-phase analytic process (Braun & Clark 2006). The first phase of the data analysis involved familiarisation. During this phase, I aimed to read the data more than once to gain an understanding of the data while making notes, observations and identifying patterns. The second phase involved coding. This phase entailed the process of data reduction. Here, I identified data relevant to the research question while I discarded data irrelevant to the research question. The third phase involved theme development. Here, data were coded and themes were developed. The next phase involved reviewing themes, which involved checking that the themes ‘work’ in relation to both the coded extracts and the full dataset. My role in this regard was to identify whether the themes were telling a story about the data and possibly define the individual themes. The fifth phase is known as defining and naming themes. This phase required that the researcher writes a detailed analysis of each theme. The last phase of the data analysis process is known as writing up. This phase entailed collating the data and informing the reader about the data and contextualising the data to the existing literature.
Ethical consideration
Ethical clearance for this study was granted by the University of Johannesburg, Faculty of Education Research Ethics Committee (No. SEM2-2023-040). The Department of Education also provided me with permission to conduct the study at the intended school. Given that some of the participants in the study were below the age of 18, a letter requesting permission to have the learners as participants in the study was sent to the parents of these learners to obtain parental consent. As an additional measure to provide protection to the participants, an educational psychologist was readily available to offer psychological support, should the need arise. I also had the presence of an educator acting as a parent during the focus group discussions. Participants were explicitly informed about the study and its objectives. In addition, anonymity was assured, and all participants knew that their participation in the study was voluntary and that, should they wish to stop participating in the study, they could do so without any implications thereof.
Results
The findings show that the majority of the teachers participating in this study qualified as teachers prior to the introduction of inclusive education. Therefore, they teach learners with special educational needs without any form of training. Although they do support inclusive education, they believe external factors beyond their teaching ability are hindering their potential to succeed in teaching inclusively The following themes emerged and will now be discussed in detail: Challenges with curriculum adoption, lack of adequate support for teachers in full-service schools and the lack of training for teachers in full-service schools.
Theme 1: Challenges with curriculum adaptation
The research findings showed that all the educators in this study support inclusive education. However, they find it very difficult to teach in inclusive classrooms. These difficulties arise from factors such as teachers’ inability to teach and support learners with special educational needs, insufficient time allocated for teachers to teach in inclusive settings and a syllabus designed to meet the needs of learners with little or low need of support in learning. These views have also been shared by Donohue and Bornman (2014), they indicated how the introduction of inclusive education is negatively affecting many educators in South Africa. This is because the majority of our teachers do not possess the skills required to meet the various needs of learners in inclusive learning environments, there is little knowledge about inclusive education among the educators, and the fact that the educators are expected to educate learners with special learning needs using the same syllabus used in traditional mainstream schools (Mastropieri et al. 2005). See below:
‘Most of the challenges that we encounter as teachers is that the department expects us to cover the syllabus like we are a mainstream school in terms of the curriculum. Whereas, when you have learners with learning barriers, you cannot just rush through the lesson plans focusing on the annual teaching plan.’ (P3, Male, educator, 60 years old)
‘These learners require additional support; however, due to the fact that we are expected to cover the curriculum as mandated, nor we do not want to be in trouble with the department, we end up just continuing to teach irrespective of whether those with learning barriers understands or not.’ (P1, Female, educator, 34 years old)
‘Remember, when a child has learning barriers, you need to be patient with them and ensure that they understand. However, the department wants us to cover the curriculum in a period of time. So, we continue teaching as if there are no learners with learning barriers.’ (P4, Male, educator, 37 years old)
Theme 2: Lack of training for teachers in full-service schools
The lack of training among the teachers, identified in this study, proved to be a major concern. This is because, among all educators in the study, only one teacher was qualified to teach learners with special learning needs. Also, the majority of the educators qualified as teachers prior to the introduction of the Education White Paper 6, and as such, they had never received any training in teaching learners in inclusive learning environments; others detailed how they had recently graduated and were looking for employment opportunities, so they took their chances. These findings concur with the findings of Majoko et al. (2018), who detailed how the lack of adequate teacher development programmes focused on inclusive education is hindering our goal of achieving inclusive education in South Africa. Moreover, teacher training programmes in universities and other higher institutions of learning offer training in inclusive education as an optional rather than a compulsory course in teacher education curricula and training:
‘I was never trained to teach learners with learning barriers. I arrived at the school looking for a job and fortunately there was a vacant post in the foundation phase, and to me it was an issue of survival, bread and butter, and I took my chances.’ (P1, Female, educator, 34 years old)
‘I joined the school with no experience in teaching learners with learning barriers.’ (P4, Male, educator, 37 years old)
‘I think teaching learners with learning barriers its more of a calling [smiling] than anything, training is not the ultimate criteria in teaching a Full-service school.’ (P2, Female, educator, 36 years old)
‘The workshops provided by the department of education are very helpful as they provide us with an opportunity to share our concerns as educators. However, I believe these workshops are more about administrative issues rather than addressing issues arising in class.’ (P3, Male, educator, 60 years old)
Theme 3: The lack of support for teachers in full-service schools
The findings revealed that the educators are significantly concerned about the continuous lack of support from the Department of Education and the school management team. They detailed how they do acknowledge the initiatives by the department to empower and increase teacher competency in teaching in inclusive learning environments through training workshops; however, they believe that the workshops are ineffective. This is because the workshops occur twice a month with only 3 h per session, making it difficult for teachers to address their concerns arising in classrooms. The teachers also believe that the workshops are generic because they are focused only on addressing matters occurring in traditional mainstream schools, disregarding the learning needs of learners with special educational needs. In addition, some of the teachers detailed how they see the workshops as initiatives focused on teacher administrative work. With regard to the school management team, the educators believe that the leadership at the school is failing them because it is only worried about meeting the needs and expectations of the district officials, who, in their view, only care about compliance with the annual teaching plan. These views are also shared by Sheron and Kaur (2022), who detail how teachers are important in creating quality education for all. As such, the quality of an education system cannot exceed the quality of its teachers. However, in South Africa, teacher development programmes, education support structures and other human capital management systems are often fragmented and under-resourced (Moloi 2014), thereby making it difficult for teachers to reach their full potential while perpetuating negative behaviours such as resistance and negative attitudes towards learners with special educational needs:
‘Yes, we do get the support from the district however, I would say that the support from the district isn’t enough. Hence, we as teachers at the school have established our own teachers’ support group where we support each other as teachers.’ (P1, Female, educator, 34 years old)
‘The department do provide workshops however, I believe this workshop do not provide the necessary tools required by teachers on the ground. This is because what we teachers experience in classes are too often not prioritised in these workshops. Another reason why these workshops might not yield the necessary results is that some teachers are not willing to do enough to support learners with special educational learning needs.’ (P2, Female, educator, 36 years old)
‘We are expected to support leaners with learning barriers; however, we as teachers are not supported. Rather, when learners are not performing, you are questioned as to how you supported the learners, etc. So, to avoid these, we just give learners marks to avoid trouble with district officials.’ (P4, Male, educator, 37 years old)
‘To be honest with you ever since joining the school mid-last year, I haven’t experienced any support from the district. Remember, previously I use to teach at a mainstream school; so to me, I haven’t seen any support given to us as teachers teaching learners with learning barriers, it’s the same as the previous school where I taught.’ (P3, Male, educator, 60 years old)
Discussion of findings
From the findings, it is evident that the educators in this study are positive about implementing inclusive education in mainstream schools. However, they believe that the Department of Education is not doing enough to empower and support them to teach successfully in inclusive learning environments. According to the educators, learners with special educational needs require additional support to learn, thrive and succeed in mainstream education. As such, they find it difficult to understand why the Department of Education is using a curriculum designed for learners with no special education needs to educate and assess learners with learning disabilities. In their views, the syllabus is doing an injustice to these learners by failing to acknowledge their learning needs. This view concurs with the findings by Zimba (2011), who in his research discovered that the curriculum used at one inclusive school has not been adjusted to suit the learning needs of learners with learning disabilities. Instead, teachers used teaching practices suitable for the learning needs of learners without special educational needs. This situation is aggravated by overcrowded classes, incorrect methods of assessing learners and the time constraints imposed by the district officials from the department, which are supposed to be the pillar of support for the educators (Ajuwon et al. 2012). However, it appears to be more focused on ensuring that teachers comply with the annual teaching plan. The educators expressed how this puts them under pressure, and because they do not want to be in trouble with the district officials or lose their jobs, they just continue with lessons even when it is evident that those with learning disabilities need additional support.
According to Shutaleva et al. (2023), many teachers who qualified as teachers prior to the introduction of inclusive education do not have the skills required to teach in inclusive schools because they were never trained and, as a result, need support. Furthermore, Maseko and Fakudze (2014) have also detailed that there is a severe shortage of in-service training courses to improve competency and possibly eliminate negative attitudes among teachers towards inclusive education. In addition, the Department of Education has failed to support schools by deploying specialists in areas such as dyscalculia and dysgraphia to support educators and learners in full-service schools. A study by Mahlo (2011) revealed that school management teams in Gauteng do not have sufficient knowledge about inclusive education, thereby making it difficult for them to support learners and educators in inclusive learning environments. The educators detailed that they do acknowledge the attempt from the Department of Education to train and support them to succeed in teaching inclusively through workshops. However, they believe that these workshops are ineffective. This is because the workshops only occur once or twice a month for only a few hours, making it hard to cover the majority of issues raised by the educators. Instead, the educators believe these workshops focus on addressing administrative roles that teachers have to fulfil. These educators also believe inclusive education is imposed on them without prioritising the needs of learners with special learning needs. What bothers them more is that when they raise their challenges with the district officials, they are told to provide more support to learners. According to Zimba (2011), teachers showed dissatisfaction with the training provided by the Department of Education because only 1 week was allocated to train and address issues arising from teaching in inclusive classrooms. They felt that a week was not enough to deal with the various concerns that had emerged since the implementation of inclusive education. In relation to training, the teachers believe it is important to receive training to teach in inclusive learning environments. However, they hold that qualifications alone do not enable one to succeed in teaching in full-service schools. Instead, inclusive education will only succeed if educators receive adequate support from the Department of Education.
Limitations of the study
This study was conducted in a single school with a limited number of educators, learners and supporting staff. Therefore, the responses provided do not represent the general opinion and perspective of the overall society. As such, these findings cannot be generalised.
Conclusion
I conclude by stating that the continuous lack of support for educators in full-service schools is negatively jeopardising the learning potential of learners with special educational needs, thereby hindering progress towards the achievement of an inclusive society. As such, I call on educational policy reformers to review the syllabus used to educate learners with learning disabilities in mainstream schools. I propose the adoption of a syllabus that is sensitive to the unique learning needs of learners with learning disabilities. These views have also been expressed by Motitswe (2012)—he observed that a syllabus and the teaching methods used by educators are very important in inclusive education. However, a curriculum that is hostile and does not consider the learning needs of other groups of learners in inclusive education settings is ineffective. Furthermore, the Department of Education should also adopt education policies that propel higher institutions of learning to make inclusive education compulsory in teacher education programmes, thereby increasing knowledge and awareness about inclusive education among students and teachers and eliminating negative behaviours towards people with special educational needs. I also propose ongoing support for teachers in inclusive schools, and this is because literature has indicated that many of them struggle to educate and support learners with special educational needs as a result of incompetence, inadequate support from school leadership and management teams and a non-inclusive curriculum that discriminates against learners with learning disabilities.
Acknowledgements
Thank you to Prof. Maximus Sefotho for your leadership, support and guidance during study. This article is partially based on the author’s thesis titled ‘Transitioning challenges for learners with Specific Learning Disabilities in Soweto’ towards the degree of Masters in the Department of Educational Psychology, University of Johannesburg, South Africa on October 2024 with supervisor Prof. Maximus Monaheng Sefotho.
Competing interests
The author declares that he has no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced him in writing this article.
Authors’ contributions
K.B.T. wrote the article and M.S. provided supervision.
Funding information
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Data availability
The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article and its references.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. They do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The author is responsible for this article’s results, findings and content.
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