Education 4.0 builds on the foundations of Industry 4.0 and emphasises technology-enhanced, data-driven and learner-centred teaching methods (Bonfield et al. 2020). This shift in educational paradigms requires teachers to move away from traditional, teacher-centred approaches and adopt more collaborative, interactive and multimodal teaching strategies (González-Pérez & Ramírez-Montoya 2022). Industry 4.0 directly impacts education by introducing new technologies that empower both teachers and learners, enhancing their capabilities and improving their technological readiness. The use of automation, coding and AI in teaching and learning transforms the delivery of education, aligning with the principles of Education 4.0 (Bonfield et al. 2020; González-Pérez & Ramírez-Montoya 2022).

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s SDG 4 emphasises the importance of pursuing quality education (Elfert 2019), which supports the need to shift from a standard teacher-centred approach to one that is student-centred and technology-guided. This shift requires training for teachers, specifically incorporating technologies afforded by the 4IR to achieve quality education as set out by SDG 4.

Information and communication technologies in teaching practice requires certain skills and competencies, such as digital literacy, through understanding of how to include technology into teaching repertoire, which can be achieved by understanding how to utilise different ICT tools and resources to support diverse learning needs (Ghavifekr & Rosdy 2015; La Fleur & Dlamini 2022). Therefore, teachers must be well-equipped and prepared to integrate ICT into their teaching and learning practices to create exciting and interactive learning environments that promote learner collaboration and critical thinking.

In the South African context, the Department of Basic Education (DBE) acknowledges the increasing importance of teacher preparation programmes in equipping pre-service teachers with vital digital literacy skills (DBE 2021a, 2025b). While policy documents clearly indicate that teachers are expected to enter the profession with sufficient digital competence (DBE 2021a, 2021b, 2025a, 2025b), the DBE has yet to establish a comprehensive national framework outlining the specific digital skills and technological tools that teachers must master prior to entering the classroom. Consequently, digital readiness varies significantly across institutions.

The South African education system anticipates that pre-service teacher education courses will produce teachers who are digitally literate and capable of effectively integrating technology into their teaching practices (DBE 2021a, 2021b, 2025a, 2025b). However, many existing teacher education programmes often do not adequately prepare pre-service teachers to incorporate digital tools effectively and to respond to the demands of 21st century education (La Fleur & Dlamini 2022).

Compounding this issue is a systemic challenge driven by ongoing digital divides, unreliable technological infrastructure, and insufficient professional development in ICT, all of which hinder the effective ICT integration in South African schools. To address these challenges, it is crucial not only to recognise the barriers, but also to actively work towards realistic solutions that foster equitable access to technology. Strengthening the technology infrastructure is a vital first step alongside comprehensive ICT-related professional development programmes that provide opportunities for pre-service teachers to gain confidence in using ICT by improving their current ICT competency. These contextual barriers underscore the need for stronger, more structured and context-responsive ICT preparation within initial teacher education (ITE) programmes.

In response to the need for teacher preparation programmes to equip pre-service teachers with the skills necessary to understand and effectively utilise technology, the guiding research question for this study was: What is the effect of an ICT integration course on third year pre-service teachers’ preparedness to incorporate ICT into their future teaching practices to achieve Education 4.0? This main research question led to two sub-research questions: (1) What do pre-service teachers learn about ICT integration for Education 4.0? and (2) How do pre-service teachers plan to implement what they learned in the course when using ICT in their teaching?

This research aims to explore the effect of an ICT integration course on student teachers’ preparedness to incorporate ICT into their future teaching practices to achieve Education 4.0. This research investigated the skills and knowledge pre-service teachers gain from a course on ICT integration and explored how pre-service teachers intend to implement what they had learned in the course when they teach using ICTs in the Intermediate Phase (IP).

A central framework underpinning effective technology integration is Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK), derived from Shulman’s concept of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK). While Shulman (1987) foregrounded the role of subject knowledge and pedagogic techniques, Mishra and Koehler (2006) expanded this to include Technological Knowledge (TK), later refining it into the TPACK model (Mishra 2019). Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge comprises three interconnected knowledge domains (see Figure 1): Content Knowledge (CK), Pedagogical Knowledge (PK), PCK, Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK), TK and Technological Content Knowledge (TCK), which together enable teachers to design context-specific, technology-enhanced learning experiences (Yeh, Chan & Hsu 2021). Content Knowledge refers to a teacher’s expertise in their subject matter, while PK describes a comprehensive understanding of teaching practices (Mishra & Koehler 2006:1026); together, CK and PK become PCK, which focuses on teaching by combining pedagogy with subject-specific content. Technological Knowledge involves familiarity with both standard and emerging technologies, and TPK recognises how various technologies can improve teaching practice (Mishra & Koehler 2006:1027). Lastly, TCK involves using technology to develop and present content, often outside of formal education (Mishra & Koehler 2006; Yeh et al. 2021). These domains are part of the TPACK framework, which supports effective teaching and knowledge creation in specific subjects (Yeh et al. 2021) (see Figure 1). By employing this framework, teachers can analyse and enhance their integration of ICT in the classroom (Mishra & Koehler 2006:1046).

The framework is widely used to assess the readiness of both pre-service and in-service teachers to integrate ICT effectively (Yeh et al. 2021). However, challenges persist, including the need for subject-specific TPACK tools to support discipline-aligned integration (Luo & Zou 2024). In this study, the TPACK framework provides a valuable lens for examining the extent to which an ICT integration course influences pre-service teachers’ preparedness to incorporate technology into IP teaching (Dzikite, Nsubuga & Nkonki 2017).

Effective ICT integration in education depends on teachers’ understanding of digital literacy and their ability to apply technology in pedagogically meaningful ways. Digital literacy forms the foundation for confident ICT use, and teachers’ attitudes towards technology significantly influence their willingness and ability to integrate it into teaching (Ghavifekr et al. 2014). Professional development is therefore essential, as it equips teachers with the knowledge and skills required to use digital tools effectively, thereby enhancing learner engagement and supporting instructional innovation (Ghavifekr & Rosdy 2015). For pre-service teachers in particular, ICT training plays a critical role in developing competence and confidence, enabling them to bridge the gap between theoretical understanding and classroom practice (Bueno-Alastuey & Villarreal 2021). Tondeur et al. (2018) further highlight how training methodologies shape ICT skills, emphasising that teacher education programmes must incorporate diverse learning strategies to align with Education 4.0 and SDG 4.

In the South African context, ICT integration is shaped by persistent urban–rural inequalities. The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic intensified the need for blended learning and exposed digital divides related to access to infrastructure, hardware and reliable electricity (Mwale, Nyamkure & Maluleke 2025). While urban schools generally possess stronger technological infrastructure (Batane & Ngwako 2017), ICT integration remains inconsistent and limited nationwide (Chigona & Chigona 2010; Mutisya 2020). As Taole (2024) argues, teachers’ TK is essential for changing attitudes and improving ICT use in classrooms. Nonetheless, meaningful ICT integration requires both theoretical knowledge and practical experience, supported by relevant devices, reliable internet connectivity and ongoing professional development (Paidican & Arredondo 2022; Taole 2024). Nkula and Krauss (2014) caution against teaching ICT as isolated skills and advocate instead for curriculum-embedded integration. Yet many South African teachers still lack the necessary digital competence to utilise available resources effectively (Dlamini 2022), reinforcing systemic challenges in ICT adoption.

Information and communication technologies integration courses within ITE programmes, therefore, play a vital role in preparing pre-service teachers for technology-enhanced teaching. These courses provide structured opportunities to develop foundational ICT skills and apply them in pedagogically meaningful ways (Admiraal et al. 2017). Higher education institutions support this development by designing programmes that integrate technological pedagogical and content knowledge (Albion et al. 2015; Batane & Ngwako 2017). When implemented effectively, ICT courses promote creativity, enhance learner engagement and bridge the gap between theoretical instruction and classroom realities (Ghavifekr & Rosdy 2015). They also provide authentic contexts for practice and feedback, enabling pre-service teachers to refine their skills and develop confidence (Albion et al. 2015). However, gaps remain. Many pre-service teachers express a need for more subject-specific training and struggle to apply technical skills in real teaching environments (Mutisya 2020). Information and communication technology integration courses, therefore, serve a dual function: developing operational proficiency and fostering pedagogical reasoning about technology use (Batane & Ngwako 2017). Training must also address classroom-level constraints, such as ICT management and troubleshooting, which influence teachers’ ability to integrate technology effectively (Maphalala & Adigun 2021).

At the policy level, initiatives such as the National Plan for Higher Education and the White Paper for Post-School Education and Training underscore the importance of aligning teacher education with evolving ICT expectations (Department of Higher Education and Training [DHET] 2013; Maphalala & Adigun 2021). To enhance pre-service teachers’ preparedness, programmes should extend the duration of ICT training, incorporate subject-specific content, and increase opportunities for practical application in classroom-like settings. A strong ICT foundation enables pre-service teachers to adopt creative, multimodal teaching strategies and supports their development as future-ready teachers.

An effective ICT integration course must therefore balance theoretical grounding with practical engagement (Bueno-Alastuey & Villarreal 2021; Mishra & Koehler 2006). Such courses should illustrate how technology enriches learning in key subjects, drawing on PCK to strengthen instructional design (Pamuk et al. 2015). Learning design tools – such as an Integrated Learning Design Environment (ILDE) – can foster flexible, diverse pedagogical approaches (Hernández-Leo et al. 2018). Progressive course sequencing, from initial exposure to hands-on practice and reflective evaluation, supports the development of techno-pedagogic competence (Gosain 2020). In addition, integrating devices such as smartboards, laptops and robotics kits helps connect theoretical concepts with real-world applications, promoting effective classroom technology use (Korucu-Kis & Ozmen 2019). Technology should complement traditional teaching methods and align with curriculum requirements to improve learner outcomes (Ghavifekr & Rosdy 2015).

Despite global and local advances in ICT integration, empirical evidence on the effectiveness of ICT integration courses in African ITE contexts remains limited. Urban–rural disparities and infrastructural challenges continue to shape pre-service teachers’ experiences and capacities. This study, therefore, contributes by evaluating how an ICT integration course influences pre-service teachers’ knowledge, skills and intentions, and by highlighting which course design features most effectively support transfer into real teaching practice. Many ICT courses still prioritise theoretical content at the expense of hands-on practice, resulting in a disconnect between technological understanding and pedagogical application (Aslan & Zhu 2015; Batane & Ngwako 2017). For courses to address 21st-century educational demands, they must incorporate emerging technologies such as VR, AI and machine learning (Bladergroen & Chigona 2019; Bonfield et al. 2020), as well as flexible pedagogical methods suited to diverse teaching contexts (Hernández-Leo et al. 2018). Practical assignments linked to teaching practice, combined with constructive feedback from mentors and peers, further strengthen pre-service teachers’ readiness to integrate ICT (Admiraal et al. 2017). Through such a comprehensive design, ICT integration courses can build the competencies needed for technology-enabled teaching in the IP.

Recent advancements in teacher education have underscored the inadequacy of merely cultivating TK or conceptualising TPACK as a static system of technical skills for effective 21st century classrooms. Existing scholarship reframes TPACK as a dynamic, reflective process deeply rooted in didactic decision-making. Morales-López, Breda and Font (2024) found that a significant enhancement in pre-service teacher preparation occurs when a technological model, such as TPACK, is deliberately integrated with an educational framework. This purposeful collaboration encourages pre-service teachers to develop deeper reflective skills, allowing them to go beyond simply using digital tools on the surface. Instead, they engage in a thorough evaluation that considers subject-specific content, interaction dynamics and the appropriateness of technology for teaching purposes.

Given these insights, this study uses the TPACK framework to explore how an ICT integration course shapes pre-service teachers’ preparedness to implement ICT in line with Education 4.0 demands, particularly in the South African context.

The study was set in a semester-long ICT integration module for third year IP pre-service teachers. The module comprised four units: (1) constructionism and Education 4.0 and SDG 4; (2) digital literacies (including AI literacies); (3) educational resource design (presentations, spreadsheets, websites); and (4) intersections of digital literacy with coding and robotics. Lectures ran across a 14-week semester with a 2-week Work Integrated Learning (WIL) block.

Participants were selected using purposive sampling. Purposeful sampling is used in qualitative research to provide in-depth insights from a specific population (Ravitch & Carl 2021:83). It involves selecting participants based on specific criteria such as experiences or knowledge (Palinkas et al. 2015). From the full cohort of students enrolled in the Teaching Studies 3A course (TEAST3A), a purposive sample of 15 participants was selected (attendance ≥ 80% and completion of all tasks), ensuring information-rich cases aligned with the study’s aims and supporting qualitative saturation targets (Hennink & Kaiser 2022). This context anchors the interpretation of preparedness and supports cautious transferability to comparable ITE settings.

Data for this study were generated through four qualitative methods: (1) 14 observations, (2) 30 student assignments, (3) 15 stimulated recall interviews and (4) 15 semi-structured interviews.

Data were analysed with ATLAS.ti 25 using the constant comparative method, moving iteratively from provisional categories to consolidated themes across datasets, with an explicit audit trail to enhance dependability and confirmability. Advanced AI-coding features were intentionally not used to maintain methodological alignment and researcher reflexivity in theme development (Dalkin et al. 2021).

This study employed the constant comparative method to analyse the data using ATLAS.ti.25 By comparing one data segment to another, the constant comparative approach was used to analyse the datasets (Merriam & Tisdell 2016:236). The constant comparative method provides a structured way of producing significant results (Merriam & Tisdell 2016:203) and involves the steps below:

Data were analysed using ATLAS.ti 25, a Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS), following the constant comparative method to identify categories, compare patterns across datasets and develop the themes that addressed the research question (Figure 2). According to Dalkin et al. (2021) and Tisdell, Merriam and Stuckey-Peyrot (2025), CAQDAS refers to computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software used to organise, code, retrieve and audit qualitative datasets; in this study, ATLAS.ti supported systematic management of all datasets.

Figure 2 shows how the process unfolded from the preparation of data to the identification of the study’s themes.

Table 1 demonstrates how the themes were derived from the refined categories from all datasets.

Anonymity was maintained throughout the research, with personal information redacted from all data collected (Arifin 2018:31). Validity was confirmed through credibility (triangulation of multiple data collection methods), transferability (relevance to similar studies that focus on ICT integration), dependability (detailed documented processes) and confirmability (clear data analysis methods) (Ravitch & Carl 2021). Trustworthiness is essential for assessing a study’s validity and quality and is defined by dependability, confirmability, credibility and transferability. Methods like triangulation can help establish it, emphasising the collaborative nature of knowledge construction and the need for researchers to reflect on their biases (Creswell 2013:300).

Ethical approval was obtained from a university in Gauteng (SEM1-2025-030), and gatekeeper permission was secured. Participants aged 18 years and older provided written consent and verbal consent before each interview was recorded. Confidentiality was ensured through the use of pseudonyms denoted as ‘P.’ Participants were informed of their right to withdraw from the study, and data will be stored for two years (Arifin, 2018, p. 30).

Ethical considerations refer to the principles that are in place to protect research subjects (Creswell, 2013). In this study, ethical clearance was obtained from the Institutional Review Board. Participants provided informed consent, and privacy was safeguarded using pseudonyms. Data retention followed approved time frames. Additionally, interviews were scheduled to minimise power dynamics and protect participants’ academic standing.

This study adhered to rigorous ethical standards to ensure the privacy, anonymity, and confidentiality of all research subjects, in line with the university’s code of conduct. Prior to the initiation of research, ethical clearance was obtained to ensure compliance regarding risk, consent withdrawal, and data access and storage.

Informed consent was acquired from participants, who were assured that participation would have no influence on their academic marks. Anonymity was upheld by redacting all personal information and assigning pseudonyms to each participant, denoted by ‘P’ (Arifin 2018, p. 30). Data collection methods included interviews, observation, and module assignments to enhance the reliability and credibility of the findings (Tisdell et al. 2025:288) while adhering to ethical standards.

The following four themes were derived from the study:

This study critiques the original TPACK model, particularly in the context of short-term, intensive ICT courses (see Figure 3). While Mishra and Koehler (2006) present technology integration as a balanced interplay of TPK and TCK, these data reveal a different reality. In compressed ITE coursework, pre-service teachers experience an imbalance in the development of technological-pedagogical reasoning.

Instead of progressing through overlapping domains like TCK or TPK, they make a direct leap from foundational TK to high-level TPACK frameworks, such as the substitution, augmentation, modification and redefinition (SAMR) model or alignment with SDG 4. This study expands understanding of TPACK by highlighting that the original framework oversimplifies the integration process, failing to capture the uneven, nonlinear pathways that pre-teachers actually navigate in practice-driven modules.

The course strengthened pre-service teachers’ foundational and advanced ICT skills. This aligns with Mishra and Koehler’s (2006) conceptualisation of TK as knowledge of digital tools and their operations. Pre-service teachers progressed from novice to competent users of spreadsheets, AI, presentation software and coding platforms.

Consistent with Zhang’s (2014) findings, structured ICT training supported the acquisition of literacy and functional skills, while reflective practice contributed to confidence and autonomy.

The findings of this study indicate that the compulsory ICT literacy course significantly enhances pre-service teachers’ TK and skills. Mishra and Koehler’s (2006) framework, alongside Yu and Golden’s (2019) definitions, highlights the importance of both theoretical understanding and practical application of ICT in educational settings. Similar to Zhang’s (2014) research, this course provided hands-on engagement through technology workshops, enabling pre-service teachers to develop critical skills for effective ICT integration in their future classrooms. These opportunities strengthened their confidence and readiness to utilise technology strategically in 21st century teaching contexts.

Despite these positive outcomes, the study acknowledges contrasting evidence from Aleksieva (2025) and Tondeur et al. (2020), which underscores ongoing inadequacies in ICT training for pre-service teachers. While mandatory courses exist, traditional pedagogical approaches often fail to provide adequate hands-on experiences and collaborative opportunities, resulting in gaps in ICT competencies. These contradictions highlight the necessity for diverse ICT training strategies, supported by knowledgeable facilitators, to foster effective integration of technology in teaching. Overall, the findings offer valuable insights into the critical role of structured ICT training in teacher education programmes, underscoring the need for continual improvement to meet the demands of modern educational landscapes.

The TPACK framework’s neutrality assumption about pre-service teachers’ initial skills is called into question by these findings. The model assumes that participants’ TK is stable and widespread. This presumption, however, does not hold in settings like the South African educational system, which is characterised by systemic injustices and digital gaps. Many pre-service teachers have considerable gaps in their core TK when they enrol in teacher preparation programmes, necessitating a significant amount of course time for remedial skills.

The findings demonstrate that the course helped pre-service teachers integrate technology with pedagogical reasoning. Pre-service teachers increasingly aligned ICT tools with learner needs, curriculum requirements and subject-specific concepts. Practical activities, such as lesson redesigns and coding tasks, fostered the development of applied TPACK. This mirrors international studies (Gill, Dalgarno & Carlson 2015; Han, Shin & Ko 2017) showing that authentic tasks strengthen ICT pedagogical reasoning and improve future integration practices.

The findings indicate that the evaluated course significantly enhanced pre-service teachers’ TPACK, equipping them with essential skills to integrate ICT into their teaching. The emphasis on practical experiences allowed these teachers to apply theoretical knowledge in authentic classroom contexts, thereby increasing their self-efficacy in utilising technology effectively (Han et al. 2017). This aligns with existing literature, which underscores the importance of hands-on engagement with ICT tools to foster effective teaching strategies and improve learning outcomes (Aslan & Zhu 2015, 2016).

However, challenges remain in translating theoretical learning into practical application. Qualitative findings revealed a disconnect between theoretical knowledge and real-world implementation, with many pre-service teachers feeling inadequately prepared to integrate technology despite their training (Niyibizi 2025). This highlights a critical gap in teacher education: While courses may offer foundational skills, additional emphasis on practical training is necessary to ensure that future teachers can confidently leverage technology in their classrooms, thereby bridging the divide between theory and practice in ICT integration.

Pre-service teachers in this study focus on mastering functional tools, such as Excel and AI-generated text, rather than on developing strong pedagogical reasoning. This issue reflects a broader trend noted in recent literature. According to Morales-López, Breda and Font-Moll (2023), to cultivate genuine techno-pedagogical reasoning, student teachers must learn to analyse how technology alters subject matter representation and student engagement with complex concepts. Without guided reflection on when and why to integrate these tools, technology remains a mere operational add-on (Morales-López et al. 2023:8) rather than a catalyst for meaningful learning.

The findings in this study present significant insights into the effects of an ICT integration course on third year pre-service teachers’ preparedness to incorporate ICT into their future teaching practices, thereby addressing the main research question regarding achieving Education 4.0. The findings further indicated that the course enhanced both the TK and TPACK among participants. The third year pre-service teachers reported improved ICT skills, confidence and the ability to align technology with pedagogical practices, indicating a solid foundation for incorporating digital resources into their classrooms. The practical experiences throughout the course, although limited, allowed them to apply the theoretical concepts to real-world contexts, further solidifying their readiness for 21st century classrooms. Overall, the study highlights the vital role of structured ICT training in preparing future teachers to navigate and implement digital tools effectively, ensuring they are well equipped to meet the challenges and opportunities of Education 4.0.

Pre-service teachers’ initial lack of ICT competence presented a barrier to full engagement. However, through scaffolded tasks, lecturer modelling and independent learning, they overcame these limitations. The study confirms claims by Dağ and Doğan (2025) that structured exposure to ICT tools can close foundational gaps and build technological resilience. This suggests that ICT integration courses play a compensatory role, especially in contexts where digital inequality persists slightly.

Hands-on experiences enabled pre-service teachers to envision how ICT can support contemporary pedagogies. The course shifted its orientation from traditional teaching models towards technology-enhanced, learner-centred instruction aligned with Education 4.0. This echoes global research showing that opportunities for authentic, practice-based ICT integration significantly improve teachers’ readiness for digital transformation (Admiraal et al. 2017; Kiili et al. 2016).

Furthermore, assessing pre-service teachers’ preparedness within a university setting overlooks the constraints of real schools. Morales-López et al. (2023) note that pre-service teachers who consider teaching in technology-driven or virtual environments encounter unique factors, such as changes in learner–teacher interactions and emotional responses. In South Africa, where infrastructure issues magnify these challenges, teacher preparation programmes need to move beyond basic self-assessments. The study suggests incorporating structured micro-teaching, simulated lesson, and clear reflective frameworks to help pre-service teachers better understand real classroom constraints and align their confidence with their actual teaching practices (Morales et al. 2023:7–8).

The course’s practice-oriented design strengthened both TK and TPACK, closing typical gaps between ITE coursework and classroom-ready integration. Participants’ narratives and artefacts evidenced pedagogically principled use of ICT, aligning with the TPACK emphasis on content and learner-centred technology use rather than tool-led practice. The integration of theoretical frameworks such as TPACK, Education 4.0, and SDG 4, combined with scaffolded, hands-on tasks, seems essential for preparedness.

Strengths include multiple data sources and rich triangulation across observations, interviews and graded assignments. Limitations include: (1) a single-institution sample (N = 15) within one module; (2) reduced contact time due to WIL; (3) outcomes assessed through course artefacts and participants discourse rather than externally observed teaching episodes, such as micro-lessons or simulated lessons; (4) reliance on the classic TPACK model without a deep contextual knowledge dimension in the updated TPACK model (Mishra 2019); and (5) the course-based evidence and self-assessment in confidence speak to preparedness to teach ICT in future classrooms rather than classroom implementation. This study primarily analyses perceptions of preparedness, intentions to use ICT and increased confidence.

Course design should maintain a balance between theory and practice while increasing micro-teaching and simulations. This approach helps approximate real classroom enactments more closely and enhance feedback cycles, making ICT integration in pedagogical actions more evident. Add VR and AR sessions and subject-specific TPACK tasks to deepen transfer of learning. Support and resources must include sustained structured tutorial support around major assignments and provide low-tech pathways (e.g. unplugged coding, single-device projection) for resource-constrained placements. Assessment should be accompanied by complementary design artefacts with observed enactments (e.g. micro-lessons) to gauge integration moves, classroom orchestration and learner engagement. Extending analysis to contextual knowledge to the updated TPACK framework will enable nuanced planning for diverse resource profiles in South African schools.