Teaching learners with ASD poses many challenges, including complex behaviours, impaired social functioning, limited communications, and emotional detachment (Vorster 2019). Teachers often experience the repetitive behaviour patterns, such as hand-flapping, rocking and spinning, displayed by learners with ASD, as a particularly disruptive challenge (Maenner et al. 2021).

There are now more learners with ASD in mainstream schools worldwide (Jaffal 2022), with differences by race and ethnicity. The prevalence of ASD in the United States in 2022 was 32.2 per 1000 children (1 in 31) (Shaw et al. 2025). There are few national statistics for South Africa; however, a study conducted in the Western Cape found that the number of ASD cases increased by 76% between 2012 and 2016 (De Goede 2022). Although these numbers may not be representative of the entire nation, they indicate rising identification rates, underscoring the need for inclusive teaching strategies.

In South African mainstream schools, the needs of learners with ASD are often inadequately addressed with therapy or academic support (Engelbrecht et al. 2015). Since many schools lack the infrastructure and resources necessary to meet the needs of their learners, the lack of specialised schools and pervasive poverty further impede efforts at inclusion (Sumbane et al. 2023). Furthermore, teachers are insufficiently trained on how to manage issues related to ASD. Through interactive workshops, this study hoped to enhance mainstream teachers’ self-efficacy in teaching learners with ASD.

The increasing number of learners with ASD in mainstream primary schools (Jaffal 2022) has exposed a significant gap between inclusive education policy and classroom practice. Although policies advocate for inclusion, many teachers remain inadequately prepared to address the complex behavioural, emotional, and communication needs of learners with ASD, including emotional dissociation and challenging behaviour (Maenner et al. 2021; Vorster 2019). Research indicates that teachers often lack the necessary pedagogical knowledge and effective strategies, despite policy expectations, and receive limited ongoing, contextually relevant professional development (Jaffal 2022; Sumbane et al. 2023). This challenge is intensified in under-resourced contexts that are characterised by poverty, insufficient learner support services, and limited access to therapeutic interventions (Engelbrecht et al. 2015; Erasmus, Kritzinger & Van der Linde 2019; Sumbane et al. 2023). Consequently, there is a clear need for structured, contextually grounded in-service teacher training as a practical intervention to bridge the gap between policy and practice and to equip teachers with sustainable strategies to effectively support learners with ASD in mainstream classrooms.

What in-service teacher-training intervention workshop can be designed to support learners with ASD in mainstream primary schools, and what content could be used in such a workshop?

Autism spectrum disorder is characterised by repetitive behavioural patterns as well as limited social functioning, communication, and participation (Maenner et al. 2021). Autism spectrum disorder is a condition that is diagnosed by a duly qualified professional (WHO 2021). In this study, we focused on the social communication difficulties, emotional difficulties, repetitive habits, and sensory sensitivity as significant characteristics of ASD (Vorster 2019). These characteristics influence classroom dynamics and were suggested by the participating teachers based on their experiences of learners with ASD. Repetitive behavioural patterns and difficulties in social interaction and communication are characteristics of ASD (Grove et al. 2019). Teachers can assist learners with ASD who exhibit repetitive behaviours by offering structured choices, transition cues, and visual supports (Kurtz-Nelson et al. 2020). Learners with ASD thrive in well-structured, controlled environments as routine disruptions and sensory sensitivity can impede learning (APA 2022; Hetherington 2017; Vorster 2019). To improve communication and language development, milieu teaching, a naturalistic developmental behavioural intervention, builds on learners’ interests during everyday interactions (Franz et al. 2019; Hampton et al. 2019). Milieu teaching offers a successful, interest-based strategy for assisting ASD learners by combining natural contexts with learner-initiated communication.

Every child should receive the support they require in order to learn, engage, and contribute to all aspects of school life. Learners should feel accepted by their local schools and be enrolled in regular, age-appropriate classes (Jardinez & Natividad 2024) as the foundational principles of inclusive education dictate. The goal of inclusive education is to develop and organise programmes, events, schools, and classrooms that promote participation and learning for all learners (DBE 2014). Four key principles of inclusive education: support, equity, flexibility, and involvement were incorporated in the workshop for this study.

One of the main concepts of Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory is self-efficacy (Bhati & Sethy 2022). Self-efficacy is a person’s belief in their ability to perform and finish a task (Bandura 1994). Self-efficacy is essential to academic learning, performance, critical thinking, and task motivation (Razzaq et al. 2018). According to Albert Bandura’s theory, verbal persuasion, emotional state, prior experience, and observation of models are the four information sources of self-efficacy.

This study advances inclusive education by designing an in-service teacher–training intervention, grounded in the constructs of Autism, Inclusive Education and Self-Efficacy (Figure 1), to strengthen teachers’ self-efficacy in supporting learners with ASD. By connecting educational psychology, inclusive education, and needs unique to ASD with Bandura’s theory of self-efficacy, the study demonstrates how systemic support, resources, and training help teachers to become more confident when implementing techniques such as sensory integration and visual supports. By addressing key characteristics of ASD and reducing teacher anxiety through modelling, past successes, encouragement, and emotional regulation, the training was guided by four fundamental principles of inclusion: participation, equality, adaptability, and support structures (Beghin 2021). The study expands the idea of inclusive education beyond physical placement to include meaningful engagement and advancement, and infuses teacher development with theoretical understandings of teacher self-efficacy.

Observing the behaviour of other participating teachers can help in-service teacher participants develop the skills to address social challenges faced by learners with ASD. The in-service teacher training workshop aimed to equip teachers with the tools to support learners with ASD in the classroom. This approach could enhance the teachers’ sense of self-efficacy in improving the social communication skills of learners with ASD. Teacher training interventions can benefit teachers’ emotional well-being by improving their didactic practices.

Encouraging equality can assist in addressing the negative experiences that lower teacher self-efficacy as well as the emotional difficulties faced by learners with ASD (Murungi 2015). Teachers can support learners’ emotional understanding by transforming past challenges into positive experiences when they treat learners with ASD optimally. Teachers who receive in-service training gain the skills necessary to promote quality education and boost their self-assurance when working with learners who have ASD.

Teachers find it challenging to motivate these learners to shift their focus when they are engaged in what interests them in a classroom. Autism spectrum disorder learners may become anxious, which may lead to head-banging, tantrums, aggression, social withdrawal and communication challenges (Centre for Disease Control and Prevention 2022). Teachers can assist learners with ASD to change their fixated focus through careful verbal persuasion, which can manage repetitive behaviours (Hussain & Khan 2022). An in-service teacher training workshop designed around these principles could thus empower teachers who are teaching ASD learners in mainstream schools to do so more successfully with a sense of self-efficacy.

Teachers face challenges integrating ASD learners into regular classrooms because of insufficient inclusive pre-service preparation (Jaffal 2022). Inadequate in-service teacher training specific to ASD may be present (Mamba 2023; Roberts & Webster 2020). Consequently, teachers in mainstream schools often confront the challenge of accommodating ASD learners without the necessary training in this area (Marais 2023).

The Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) has established guidelines for teacher education programmes at the pre-service level (Nseibo et al. 2023). According to DHET policy, student teachers must recognise and embrace inclusive education (DHET 2015). The DHET outlines the training for prospective teachers to implement inclusive education effectively (Nseibo et al. 2023). However, because of limited time and credit availability in undergraduate programmes, ASD-specific pre-service training is often not feasible. Thus, in-service teacher training interventions are needed to adequately support ASD learners in mainstream primary schools.

To ensure that ASD learners can achieve their full potential, the Education White Paper 6 (EWP6) emphasises that learners’ needs should be supported (DoE 2001). Because of the limited schools that specifically cater for ASD learners, teachers are often required to teach learners with ASD alongside their peers in a typical classroom setting (Majoko & Phasha 2018). This enhances inclusivity; however, teachers often do so without receiving adequate training and support from the educational system. By creating an in-service teacher training workshop, this study sought to address these training inconsistencies.

Credibility, confirmability, dependability, transferability and authenticity are the criteria that Guba and Lincoln (1986) proposed to assess the quality of qualitative research. The trustworthiness of the findings was ensured through triangulation and detailed methodological reporting. Credibility was established by using multiple data sources and encouraging open and honest participant responses. We maintained neutrality and bias was minimised as we used an unfamiliar site, and the data were independently checked by an impartial reviewer. Confirmability was ensured by open communication, a research diary and an audit trail. Data were cross-checked and methods reported in detail to ensure reliability. Transferability was enhanced by the provision of rich contextual detail, allowing the reader to relate whether the findings can be useful in their own setting.

An ethical clearance certificate was obtained from the Research Ethics Committee (REC) at the University of Johannesburg, Faculty of Education, authorising the study, with ethical clearance number (SEM2-2024-119), with the REC Registration Number of 110613-036. Ethical issues, such as informed consent, confidentiality and protection from harm, were adhered to. The school principal and teachers involved in the study were fully informed of the study’s purpose before they gave written consent. Participation was voluntary, without any penalties for non-participation. Some teachers attended the workshop for their own professional development, but declined to participate in the research. The data were kept confidential and anonymous, accessible only to the researcher and supervisor. Personal information was kept safe and deleted 2 years after the end of the study. The researchers were alert to any potential harm, and support was provided to participants where necessary.

Participants reported substantial challenges and self-doubts when teaching learners with ASD (PWS). They described persistent difficulties related to attention, learning pace, and behaviour, noting that ASD learners often take longer to understand concepts and require frequent redirection to remain engaged:

Emotional and sensory-related behaviours were identified as concerns. Teachers expressed uncertainty about managing meltdowns, emotional outbursts, and general emotional well-being:

Nearly all participants indicated that teaching learners with ASD required high levels of patience, flexibility, and specialised techniques. They found that attention difficulties often necessitated constant rerouting, while resistance to change and repetitive behaviours disrupted classroom routines. These challenges reinforced for teachers that a uniform instructional approach is inadequate, given the diverse emotional and behavioural needs presented by learners with ASD.

The second theme identified was participants’ prior knowledge and methods. The following quotes illustrate the knowledge participants previously had to support learners with ASD:

Participants recognised the importance of including learners with ASD in the classroom. The PWS results provided insight into the participants’ prior knowledge, experiences and expectations regarding the instruction of ASD learners. The PWS indicated that teachers had a basic understanding of behavioural patterns commonly associated with ASD, as well as an awareness of the emotional challenges faced by these learners and the potential implications for academic and social development.

Despite this foundational awareness, the participants’ overall comprehension of ASD was limited, as they did not understand the range or spectrum of abilities characterised from high through medium to low functioning. This highlighted the need for professional development and specialised training to enhance their capacity to support a range of learners:

Participants described several methods they used before attending the workshop to support learners with ASD:

These methods included multisensory teaching, classroom management techniques, remediation and repetition, and practices that provided emotional support. Participants made efforts to create structured and inclusive learning environments by breaking tasks down into smaller steps, showing patience, offering positive reinforcement, and adapting the curriculum to meet individual needs. They also used visual aids, minimised distractions, and established clear boundaries.

However, participants noted a lack of specific guidelines to support learners with ASD. The PWS highlighted their uncertainty, limited exposure and gaps in ASD-specific knowledge, emphasising the need for a structured teacher–training intervention to strengthen self-efficacy and instructional competence.

The third theme identified was the participants’ insights gained from the workshop, which contributed to an increase in their self-efficacy. Participants reported new learning and reflections, as illustrated in the following quotes:

The insights gained included a deeper understanding of the individual differences among learners with ASD. Participants created various resources for supporting learners with ASD. Participants gained practical knowledge on implementing sensory support to create a more accommodating learning environment, such as creating a safe corner in the classroom. The participants made resources that could enhance learning and improve engagement, such as visual timers:

Participants developed a greater appreciation for collaboration with parents through role-play scenarios where teachers held mock consultations with parents. This allowed participants to realise that effective support for learners with ASD requires a holistic partnership between teachers and families.

Participants recognised individual differences required using personalised teaching approaches. Participants valued the importance of maintaining structured environments and predictable routines. Participants explored milieu teaching, which promotes language communication through natural, everyday interactions. Post-workshop reflections indicated a clearer understanding of using PECS and multisensory resources to support learners more effectively.

The fourth theme focused on the effectiveness of the workshop and teachers’ motivation to continue their professional development. Teachers reported that they did not find any aspect of the workshop challenging. Their feedback from the POS included statements such as:

Participants indicated that no meaningful changes were required to the workshop structure. The content offered valuable support and practical resources that the teachers could apply immediately in their classrooms. Participants expressed satisfaction with the training. They reported that the workshop enhanced their ability to create more inclusive and supportive environments and equipped them with practical strategies for working with learners with ASD. Many felt that the skills gained improved their confidence and overall self-efficacy. Although participants found the workshop valuable, they also expressed a desire for more training to broaden their knowledge and deepen their skills in supporting learners with ASD. This highlighted an ongoing need for additional professional development opportunities in the next action cycle.