Original Research

Teacher–parent collaboration to support the emotional well-being of adolescents living with dyslexia: A Participatory Action-Learning and Action-Research approach

Marijke Benson, Mariëtte Koen

Received: 21 Nov. 2025; Accepted: 09 Mar. 2026; Published: 25 June 2026

Copyright: © 2026. The Author(s). Licensee: AOSIS.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Abstract

Background: Supporting the emotional well-being (EWB) of adolescents experiencing dyslexia requires a collaborative effort from teachers and parents. Dyslexia is a prevalent but often misunderstood learning barrier in South Africa. When learners experience delayed or inaccurate identification, this contributes to academic, social and emotional challenges, particularly during adolescence.

Aim: This study employed a qualitative, Participatory Action-Learning and Action-Research approach within a critical transformative paradigm.

Setting: The study was conducted over a period of 2 years within a context where teachers and parents participated as co-researchers to support adolescents’ EWB.

Methods: The study was grounded in Seligman’s Positive Emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning and Accomplishment (PERMA) model and Positive Psychology theory. Using an iterative research process, the co-researchers engaged in three research cycles to identify key challenges and develop contextually relevant strategies to strengthen support and promote adolescents’ EWB.

Results: This article focuses on Cycles 1 where the findings indicate that early identification, inclusive education, capacity-building for teachers and parents, and broader community involvement are essential for transforming perceptions of dyslexia and fostering adolescent EWB. Three strategies were identified to address the issues, namely creating support systems for adolescents living with dyslexia; equipping parents and teachers with relevant knowledge; and advocating for a better understanding of dyslexia.

Conclusion: The challenges and strategies identified from this Doctor of Philosophy study highlight the potential of collaborative, strengths-based approaches to disrupt marginalisation, enhance resilience and promote social change.

Contribution: This study contributes a practical model for teacher–parent collaboration that affirms inclusive, informed educational practices to support the EWB of adolescents living with dyslexia.

Keywords: adolescence; dyslexia; learning barriers; teachers; parents; positive psychology; emotional well-being; PERMA model.

Introduction

Over the past decade, there has been a significant increase in the identification of learning barriers globally (Richardson 2021:125). Research indicates that dyslexia is one of the most prevalent, yet frequently unrecognised, learning barriers, affecting 5% – 20% of individuals worldwide (Komesidou et al. 2022:277). Dyslexia is a lifelong condition with no known cure, requiring continuous management of its associated challenges (Kirby 2020:472). The challenges often result in repeated failures and frustrations in their academic pursuits, at both school and home (Zhou et al. 2023). There is growing concern that, beyond literacy and academic challenges, dyslexia imposes a substantial emotional toll on adolescents, making them more vulnerable to adverse life outcomes (Cunningham 2021:15).

Research increasingly highlights the pivotal role that teachers and parents play in supporting the emotional well-being (EWB) of adolescents with dyslexia (Rauf et al. 2020:276). While their contributions differ, both parties hold essential knowledge and insights that can shape more empathetic and effective responses (Wilmot et al. 2023). Teacher–parent collaboration offers a powerful strategy for addressing the emotional and educational needs of adolescents through the joint development of support strategies and a shared understanding of the challenges involved (Indrarathne 2019).

This small-scale Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) study, conducted in South Africa, adopted a Participatory Action-Learning and Action-Research (PALAR) approach to bring teachers and parents together. Because of this approach, the teachers and parents were recognised and referred to as co-researchers. Through facilitated discussions and reflective group engagement, they explored how their collaboration could contribute to improving the EWB of adolescents experiencing dyslexia. The process enabled them to identify emotional needs, challenge assumptions, and co-develop strategies for support.

Acknowledging the complex emotional experiences of adolescents with dyslexia, the study drew on relevant literature and contextual challenges to frame the inquiry, as outlined in the following section.

Background

Adolescents living with dyslexia face a range of emotional challenges, including anxiety, frustration, low self-esteem, depression and anger (Xiao et al. 2023:324). These emotional struggles often arise from repeated academic setbacks, social exclusion and unmet expectations in both home and school environments (Romero 2020:34). Without early identification and consistent support, these challenges intensify during adolescence, a period already marked by emotional and developmental complexity (Andresen & Monsrud 2022:1063).

Secondary school success relies heavily on reading and writing proficiency (Traga Philippakos, Wiese & Davis 2023), and for adolescents with dyslexia, deficits in these areas can lead to negative emotional states such as shame, loneliness and helplessness (Rahul & Ponniah 2021:1). This emotional toll impacts not only academic achievement but also overall EWB, making it essential that interventions go beyond literacy instruction to include psychological and social support (Wilmot et al. 2023). Given these challenges, teacher–parent collaboration becomes critical. Both parties have unique insights and roles in supporting adolescents emotionally and academically (Brown-Chidsey et al. 2024:146). Teachers are often the first to observe learning barriers and emotional struggles in the classroom, while parents have deeper insight into their child’s lived experiences and coping mechanisms at home (Peltier et al. 2022:2077). When teachers and parents work together intentionally and reflectively, they can provide consistent, responsive and compassionate support that promotes adolescent resilience and self-worth (Indrarathne 2019:630).

This research adopts a PALAR approach, involving both teachers and parents as co-researchers to examine how collaboration can improve the EWB of adolescents with dyslexia. Through shared reflection and action, they developed practical strategies to address learners’ emotional needs and transform how support is enacted in both home and school settings. To conceptualise EWB, this study draws on positive psychology (PP) and Seligman’s PERMA model (2011), which emphasises five core elements of well-being: Positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning and accomplishment. This framework provided a structure for understanding how adolescents with dyslexia can be supported to thrive emotionally, not just academically. It also guided the co-researchers in identifying how their collaborative roles could nurture these elements through shared efforts. In conclusion, EWB is a central concern for adolescents with dyslexia, and addressing it effectively requires a collaborative, holistic approach. When teachers and parents unite through reflective, participatory processes, they can collectively support adolescents not only in overcoming academic barriers but also in developing the emotional strength and confidence needed to flourish.

Theoretical framework

Positive psychology and the Participatory Action-Learning and Action-Research approach

This study is grounded in PP, a framework that focuses on identifying and cultivating individuals’ strengths to promote well-being. Rather than merely addressing dysfunction, PP seeks to understand what enables individuals and communities to thrive. Central to this approach is Seligman’s Positive Emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning and Accomplishment (PERMA) model, which outlines five key components of well-being: positive emotions, engagement, positive relationships, meaning and accomplishment (Seligman 2011, 2019:1). These elements offer a comprehensive foundation for supporting the EWB of adolescents with dyslexia, particularly when applied through collaborative efforts between teachers and parents.

Historically, psychological frameworks concentrate on reducing ill-being, such as anxiety, depression or stress (Ryff 2022:2). Positive psychology marks a paradigm shift towards restoring and enhancing well-being through the cultivation of strengths, virtues and resilience (Van Zyl et al. 2024:207). This shift is especially relevant in adolescence, a developmental stage that often involves emotional turbulence and identity formation. For adolescents living with dyslexia, this period can be further complicated by ongoing academic challenges and social marginalisation, often resulting in negative emotional states or learned helplessness. Learned helplessness, as conceptualised by Seligman (1999:559), occurs when individuals repeatedly experience failure and begin to feel powerless to change their circumstances, which can severely undermine motivation, self-esteem and emotional health (Abdellatif 2023).

In contrast, the state of flourishing, also introduced by Seligman (2011), describes individuals who experience positive emotions, psychological growth and strong social connections. Flourishing integrates both the hedonic approach, which emphasises the experience of happiness and satisfaction, and the eudaimonic approach, which focuses on meaning, purpose and personal growth (Kiptiony 2024:27). For adolescents with dyslexia, flourishing is not just about academic success but about developing emotional strength, resilience and a positive self-concept despite ongoing challenges. Achieving this state requires intentional support from the key adults in their lives, primarily teachers and parents.

In this study, the PERMA model was used within a PALAR framework. The co-researchers are engaged in reflective dialogue and collaborative problem-solving to strengthen adolescents’ EWB. This strength-based approach reframed dyslexia from a barrier to a challenge that can be addressed through empathy, resilience and coordinated support. Integrating PERMA into the participatory process offered both a conceptual lens and a practical guide for teacher–parent collaboration, encouraging shared responsibility, deeper understanding and contextually grounded strategies. It also contributes to broader debates on how teacher education can equip professionals to engage families in holistic, empathetic and transformative ways.

Research methods and design

Research design

This small-scale PhD study used a PALAR design to examine how teacher–parent collaboration can support the EWB of adolescents with dyslexia. Participatory Action-Learning and Action-Research, as a form of action-research, is grounded in participation, democratic engagement, lifelong learning and transformation (Wood 2019), and positions participants as co-researchers who contribute local knowledge and lived experience (Wood & Zuber-Skerritt 2013:1).

Over 2 years, three iterative PALAR cycles enabled the co-researchers to identify key challenges and co-develop contextually relevant strategies to strengthen EWB support. This article reports on Cycle 1, focusing on challenges experienced by adolescents with dyslexia and offering an in-depth exploration of their EWB, an underexamined dimension that informed later work. In Cycles 2 and 3, strategies were refined and a booklet was produced to raise dyslexia awareness and provide practical guidance for teachers, parents, and the wider community in building supportive school and home environments. Detailed analysis of Cycles 2 and 3 will be presented in a future article to ensure sufficient depth and coherence.

Research paradigm

Framed within a critical, transformative participatory paradigm, a qualitative approach was employed to generate rich, context-specific insights into participants’ lived experiences and perspectives (eds. Merriam & Grenier 2019). This paradigm recognises the need for social transformation through collaborative inquiry and reflection (Morse 2020:1). It was chosen specifically to promote teacher–parent collaboration as a vehicle for developing responsive, emotionally supportive practices for adolescents with dyslexia.

The paradigm comprises three interwoven elements, critical theory, participation, and transformation, which together guided the study’s ethical stance, methodology and collaborative intentions. The co-researchers engaged in dialogue to surface challenges and co-create strategies to address the emotional and educational impact of dyslexia. These processes contributed to deeper awareness, the development of a support guideline and meaningful change in practice.

In South Africa’s public-school sector, reading comprehension and literacy challenges among adolescents remain a serious concern, often accompanied by low self-esteem, anxiety, stress, confusion and helplessness, although some learners show resilience (Stein, Hoeft & Richter 2024). Limited South African research on how teachers and parents can support the EWB of adolescents with dyslexia (Geertsema et al. 2022) points to a clear gap, reinforcing the need to explore effective support for learners with literacy-related learning barriers. Importantly, the lack of awareness and stigma surrounding dyslexia in South Africa was identified as a major contributor to adolescents’ poor EWB (Gibby-Leversuch, Hartwell & Wright 2021:5595; Johnston & Scanlon 2021:107). Within this paradigm, the research process enabled co-researchers to critically reflect on such challenges, disrupt marginalising assumptions and develop empathetic, collaborative responses (Coy et al. 2021). As such, co-creation of knowledge and shared reflection served not only as research strategies but also as catalysts for social change (Keahey 2021:291; Wood 2020).

Site and recruitment

The study was conducted in two provinces in South Africa and involved two Action Learning Sets (ALS), each comprising teachers and parents of adolescents with dyslexia. Participants were recruited using purposive sampling to ensure the inclusion of individuals with relevant and in-depth experience, as recommended by Patton (2022:1165). Snowball sampling was also used to allow initial participants to refer others who met the selection criteria, thereby expanding the group in a meaningful and contextually appropriate way. Two local recruiters supported the initial recruitment process based on predefined criteria.

Group One, located in Province A, consisted of three parents, all women aged between 30 years and 60 years, each of whom had one or more adolescents diagnosed with dyslexia. Group One also consisted of 5 teachers, which consisted of two male and three female teachers, aged between 30 years and 60 years, with 5–20 years of teaching experience in public secondary schools. Group Two, located in Province B, included four parents, also women aged between 30 years and 60 years, whose adolescents, aged 13–18 years, were attending public secondary schools. Group Two had one male and four female teachers, aged 30–60 years, with 7–30 years of teaching experience. In addition, six professionals with specialised expertise in dyslexia participated in the research at various stages across the three PALAR cycles. These experts made significant contributions to the ALS sessions and played a key role in co-developing a practical support booklet.

The small-scale nature of the study allowed for close engagement with the unique contexts, lived realities, and emotional and educational challenges experienced by adolescents living with dyslexia in South Africa. This proximity supported deeper insight and responsiveness throughout the collaborative research process.

Data generation methods and analysis

To promote active participation and collective meaning-making, three data generation methods were employed namely, ALS discussions, photovoice and reflective journal entries. The first data generation method consisted of facilitated ALS discussions which created a space for group dialogue that encouraged deep reflection and the exchange of knowledge between teachers and parents. In Cycle 1, the photovoice method was used, in which co-researchers captured images that represented their experiences and challenges in supporting adolescents with dyslexia. These photographs were accompanied by written or verbal narratives that offered personal and contextual insights, which were then explored in group discussions. Reflective journal entries provided an additional layer of data, allowing participants to document their thoughts and emotional responses. Because participants were initially hesitant to write independently, time was allocated at the beginning and end of each session to support structured reflection.

All data collected through these methods were transcribed and analysed using Braun and Clarke’s (2019:589) six-phase approach to Thematic Analysis, which included familiarisation with the data, coding, theme development, review, definition, and write-up. To ensure the credibility and trustworthiness of the research, the analysis was further guided by Herr and Anderson’s (2014) five validity criteria: outcome validity, process validity, democratic validity, catalytic validity and dialogic validity. This multimethod approach allowed for the generation of rich, layered insights and reinforced the collaborative, emotionally attuned nature of the research.

Integrity and ethics

Ethical integrity was central to the PALAR process and underpinned all phases of the research. Building trust and authentic relationships among co-researchers was essential and required an ongoing commitment to ethical reflection, transparency and the alignment of the research with North-West University’s ethical protocols from 2021 to 2023.

To ensure ethics were upheld within this participatory framework, the study was guided by the principles of the Seven C’s and Three R’s, as articulated by Wood et al. (2015). The Seven C’s, character building, communication, commitment, competence, compromise, critical reflection, collaboration and coaching, were used as a framework to guide reflection on values, assumptions and facilitation practices. The Three R’s, reflection, relationships and recognition, further reinforced the importance of mutual respect, co-learning and ethical reciprocity. These principles were applied throughout the research to ensure inclusive, value-driven participation. Given the diverse worldviews and ethical positions of participants, collective agreement was required before any key decisions were made. All data were securely stored using password-protected Google Drive folders and were accessible only to the researcher, the academic supervisor and examiners. In accordance with the university’s records management policy, all data will be destroyed after the required retention period.

Limitations

A key limitation of this small-scale participatory study was the impact of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) during data generation. Initial recruitment and engagement were constrained by lockdown restrictions, which forced the first ALS group to meet online. This hindered relationship-building, a central aim of the PALAR approach, and led to inconsistent participation because of distractions and limited access to technology. The online format also weakened the collaborative dynamic essential for meaningful teacher–parent engagement. The delayed formation of Group Two, caused by extended ethical clearance processes, further disrupted continuity and affected the depth of collaborative reflection.

Another limitation was the predominance of female co-researchers, which may have resulted in gendered insights and excluded male perspectives on adolescent EWB. Language barriers and diverse cultural backgrounds also presented challenges, potentially limiting full expression and influencing how questions were interpreted. Differences in co-researchers’ knowledge and confidence regarding dyslexia and EWB affected the consistency and richness of the data. In addition, the sample largely comprised older teachers and parents, possibly overlooking views from younger collaborators.

Finally, as a small-scale qualitative study situated in a specific South African context, the findings are not intended to be generalisable but rather to offer deep, contextually grounded insights into teacher–parent collaboration in supporting adolescents with dyslexia.

Ethical considerations

An application for full ethical approval was made to the North-West University Faculty of Education Research Ethics Committee (EduREC), and ethics consent was received on 25 February 2021 until 24 November 2023. The ethics approval number is NWU-01265-20-A2. Formal ethical clearance was obtained, and all participants signed informed consent agreements after being fully briefed on the aims and procedures of the study. These agreements were shared and signed during the first session of Cycle 1, prior to the commencement of data generation.

Results

The goal of this study was to explore how teachers and parents could collaborate to support the EWB of adolescents experiencing dyslexia. From Cycle 1 of the co-researchers ALS discussions, five key themes emerged, all highlighting critical aspects of collaboration in supporting the EWB of adolescents with dyslexia in South Africa. These themes include early identification and intervention, access to quality education, the emotional impact of supportive strategies, training and professional development and community support. The following section discusses each of these themes in detail.

Early identification and interventions

A key finding of this participatory study is that early identification and intervention are crucial for strengthening teacher–parent collaboration to support adolescents’ EWB. This aligns with Kaye, Lozada and Briggs (2022) and Romero (2020), who argue that early recognition enables timely support and equips adolescents with strategies to manage learning challenges, and with Andresen and Monsrud (2022), who note that learning to navigate dyslexia early supports healthier emotional development.

However, the co-researchers indicated that in South Africa, identification is often not followed by sustained intervention, meaning dyslexia may be noticed but not adequately addressed. When support is delayed or inconsistent, it can become a prolonged emotional stressor marked by frustration, shame, anxiety and disengagement. One teacher described a learner whose difficulties were identified early but repeatedly deferred as the learner progressed through grades:

‘It has been four years since I first identified one of the children that really struggled, I got him from Grade 1, and he is now Grade 11. I suspect he has dyslexia because all his letters are like stick figures. I tried to move heaven and earth, and nothing changed. He always just gets by with a 40%, and the main idea I get is they try to pass the buck every single time. This troubled me deeply, so I went to look at his learner profile and realised they already picked up his problem in Grade 1, that he had dyslexia, and each year, it is just a new teacher’s problem to get him through the grade, and now he is unable to write a proper sentence, yet he is brilliant in math, so like I said, mostly, it seems like the buck keeps moving past.’ (Participant 2, teacher, female)

Although this testimony is individual, it reflects a systemic pattern that support is often shifted from one grade to the next without continuity, and identification does not reliably lead to a structured, monitored plan. This ‘passing on’ undermines academic progress and EWB, as repeated struggle may be internalised as personal inadequacy rather than a learning difference. Over time, the lack of sustained early support compounds vulnerability, reinforcing Kirby’s (2020:472) argument that dyslexia should be addressed early to protect both learning and long-term EWB. A second related issue raised was the breakdown of support during key transitions, particularly from primary to secondary schooling. As one teacher observed:

‘We have seen this countless times, many children are identified in primary school when they reach Grade 7, they are just sent to a mainstream high school, without any help.’ (Participant 1, teacher, female)

This highlights a systemic problem of poor follow-through disrupts academic continuity and emotional stability. They identified structural barriers in South African education, including long waiting lists, heavy paperwork and delayed approvals. Many learners were also denied evaluations for not meeting diagnostic thresholds despite ongoing struggles. These delays increased stigma, negative labelling and emotional distress, leaving some adolescents to develop unhealthy coping mechanisms without proper support.

In response, they highlighted the urgent need for greater awareness and school-level responsibility, especially in contexts where families cannot afford private assessments. One parent shared:

‘I think it is important for teachers to be able to refer the child. It’s also something a school can look into, a mainstream school must say we will allocate some funds to a child who can’t afford an educational psychologist, and we must do these tests to support the child. Because I still believe there is a group of teachers in every school who cares if they can just get help somewhere.’ (Participant 1, parent, female)

Overall, the findings suggest that early identification and intervention best support adolescents’ EWB when embedded in consistent, collaborative and system-supported practice. When coordinated between teachers and parents, early support can reduce preventable emotional harm by limiting repeated failure and strengthening competence and belonging. However, the co-researchers found that gaps in educational quality, resources, and follow through often weaken these benefits. The next theme therefore examines access to quality education as a foundation for sustaining support and protecting adolescents’ EWB.

Quality education

Building on the previous theme of early identification and intervention, the findings further revealed that access to quality education is essential for sustaining EWB support for adolescents with dyslexia. Both teachers and parents emphasised that quality education goes beyond curriculum delivery; it includes access to necessary resources, financial support and a collaborative framework that prioritises the emotional and educational needs of learners. For many, the absence of these foundational elements in South African public schools remains a major barrier. One teacher described the constraints in under-resourced schools:

‘There is a lack of support in schools, especially poor schools. Sometimes, it is just the parents that cannot afford support financially, but sometimes it is the schools that cannot afford it to provide the support for the children in the school.’ (Participant 3, teacher, female)

The findings reflect on national research, which highlights how the South African education system often fails to meet adequate standards, particularly in public schools located in low-income communities (Maistry & Africa 2020:4; Myende & Maifala 2020:225). The co-researchers described how the quintile-based school funding model disadvantages learners from impoverished areas, leaving schools unable to provide basic interventions for dyslexia. In such contexts, teachers are often instructed to refer struggling learners to external professionals, placing the financial burden on families already struggling to meet basic needs, as explained by this teacher:

‘All the parents can’t afford it because our principal said that the parents of the learners we identified should find someone from outside themselves, and they have to pay for it themselves. Our children don’t even have bread … they are driven by buses which the state at least now pays for. They do not have money to pay for accommodations or to see an educational psychologist.’ (Participant 3, teacher, female)

These insights highlight systemic inequities that make early, consistent support difficult to sustain through adolescence. With 67% of South African adolescents experiencing multidimensional poverty (United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund [UNICEF] 2020) and 23% living in rural areas (Statistics South Africa [Stats SA] 2018, 2020), many families rely on public schools for basic support and have little opportunity to access private assessments or specialised dyslexia interventions. They also identified overcrowded classrooms and limited individual attention as key barriers. By contrast, private schools are more likely to provide evaluations, accommodations and specialist services that respond to learners’ needs. As one parent shared:

‘My child got lost in the mainstream school, and as a parent, I did not know how to provide and give him the necessary support. He did not receive the necessary support. When we took him to the private school, there was an evaluation and he got to see a psychologist. Within a week, we moved him to the private school.’ (Participant 2, parent, female)

This comparison highlights how socioeconomic status shapes access to quality education and EWB support. Wealthier families can obtain assessments and learning plans, while many others depend on underfunded, inconsistent systems. Teacher–parent collaboration is therefore necessary but constrained. It can improve home and classroom strategies, yet it cannot replace adequate resources, specialist access or system-level accountability. The co-researchers called for individualised support, multisensory tools, and a more flexible curriculum and proposed specialised institutions offering technical and practical subjects so adolescents with dyslexia can excel beyond literacy-heavy pathways. Overall, the finding shows how structural inequality undermines adolescents’ EWB by making early interventions hard to sustain and limiting what teachers and parents can do. The next finding explores how practical strategies can further strengthen EWB support.

Supportive strategies

Building on early identification and access to quality education, the co-researchers found that practical, inclusive strategies are essential for sustaining the EWB of adolescents with dyslexia. Their lived experiences showed that adolescents can cope and thrive when supported through collaborative, adaptive interventions such as alternative assessments, assistive technologies and multisensory teaching. However, consistent use depends on systemic conditions, access to assessment services, specialist support, assistive technology and manageable class sizes, which vary widely across South African schools.

A common strategy was alternative assessment for learners who struggled with traditional written tasks, including verbal responses, reduced writing demands and accommodations such as scribes, readers and extra time. These adjustments lowered anxiety and academic pressure, helping learners to demonstrate knowledge with less emotional strain.

The teacher described the positive impact of such accommodations as follows:

‘I have a boy in my class who is similar, and he has a scribe. As a result of this conversation, I spoke to his scribe, and she told me that he answered normally at first, but after a while, he stopped speaking normally. Now, she started implementing the strategies we talked about, for example, she will let him stand up for a bit, walk along a line, and take a sip of water. There is also someone who came from outside of the school, so he was identified with both dyslexia and severe learning problems and now he writes separately with a scribe. We also applied these strategies and now his grades have improved and his self-confidence, especially emotionally.’ (Participant 5, teacher, female)

This testimony highlights a systemic inequity that accommodations are implemented most reliably when schools can access external assessments and dedicated support staff, while under-resourced schools often cannot. As a result, implementation depends more on institutional capacity and referrals than teacher willingness. Assistive technologies can reduce reading and writing stress and support EWB through greater engagement and confidence, but unequal access to devices, software, connectivity and technical support may widen gaps unless provision is planned equitably. One teacher shared:

‘To provide accommodation for them, extra writing time, readers, concessions that give them support. It is very important to have a learner evaluated and by the right person; otherwise, the accommodation is thrown out, so it must be an educational psychologist, an occupational therapist. The types of accommodation include auditory learning, making use of technology and hybrid methods for learning. Usually, these adolescents write together, and we have found when these children who are struggling are together, then it goes emotionally much better with them because they don’t feel so alone; they can associate with them. It makes them more self-confident because it makes them positive towards their academics; they progress and become independent, and they are happy.’ (Participant 3, teacher, female)

Throughout the collaboration, the teachers and parents were able to test and refine strategies with experts. They concluded that these approaches work best when institutionalised through inclusive school practices, School-Based Support Team (SBST) support, manageable class sizes, and flexible curriculum, conditions often undermined by overcrowding and limited resources. A sustainable impact also requires ongoing professional development, as practical training equips teachers and parents to implement emotionally responsive support consistently. This will be explored in the next theme, where it is explained how training can strengthen teacher–parent collaboration and enable implementation across contexts.

Training and professional development

Building on the need for supportive strategies within a quality education context, the co-researchers stressed that effective support for adolescents with dyslexia cannot occur in isolation, it requires a well-equipped, confident and knowledgeable support system. This underscores the need for targeted training and professional development to help teachers and parents recognise, understand and respond to adolescents’ complex needs. Without intentional capacity-building, well-meaning interventions often fall short and EWB suffers (Marshall 2021). Collaboration depends not only on willingness but also on shared competence and consistent practices across home and school. The co-researchers therefore emphasised structured, dyslexia-specific training, noting that most teachers enter the profession with little practical preparation to address dyslexia. The teachers voiced their concern about this gap in teacher education:

‘The problem starts at the university level because teacher students are not trained in their coursework on how to support a learner with dyslexia. It may be a short introduction or a quick course, but they need intensive training. They need to realise there is an urgent need for this to be included in the university curriculum.’ (Participant 2, teacher, female)

This indicates a systemic gap that when pre-service teacher education does not provide dyslexia-specific competence, responsibility is effectively transferred to individual teachers to develop expertise independently. Although professional development opportunities are available, they reported that these are frequently either too general or insufficiently accessible, resulting in dyslexia being treated as a peripheral topic rather than a specialised area requiring targeted training and support. Cost was a significant barrier, particularly in under-resourced schools. As explained by the teachers:

‘Courses about dyslexia should be given in-depth for teachers, it should be included in the school’s budget. But do you know how we struggle to get service providers that present these types of courses? Some courses cost R150,000, a teacher cannot afford that! I mean who can?’ (Participant 1, teacher, female)

This highlights an equity issue in professional development. Schools with greater resources can fund training and access specialist providers, while low-resourced schools remain least able to build capacity, even though they have the greatest need. As a result, training shortfalls leave fewer teachers who are able to provide EWB support. These gaps affect not only classroom instruction but also family support. Parents reported needing guidance to reinforce learning at home and called for stronger teacher-led modelling and collaboration. The parents remarked:

‘It would help if they could show us how they did it in class so that we can practise it the same way at home; we need training from teachers to show us how to do this.’ (Participant 3, parent, female)

Effective collaboration requires a shared responsibility, and strategies need to be aligned across home and school. As explained, individualised support plans are most effective when teachers and parents share the necessary skills and understanding through ongoing, specialised training (Indrarathne 2019:630). At a systems level, this requires institutional and policy support, embedding dyslexia training in teacher education, resourcing workshops through school or district budgets, and strengthening awareness and accountability. While broader community partnerships can extend the support network, leading into the next theme on community support and shared responsibility.

Community support

Across earlier themes, early identification, quality education, supportive strategies and training were shown to be shaped by conditions that enable or constrain support. In this context, it is emphasised that support for adolescents with dyslexia remains incomplete without broader community involvement and a collective shift in how dyslexia is understood. Adolescents’ EWB is strongly shaped by the perceptions and support, or lack thereof, in the environments they navigate daily. Teachers and parents recognised that sustained collaboration and advocacy must extend into the community to make a meaningful difference. Community support can either reinforce stigma or enable inclusion.

The co-researchers shared how limited awareness and misinformation about dyslexia among key community stakeholders, including teachers, peers and school administrators, often left adolescents feeling misunderstood and unsupported. One teacher captured the sense of marginalisation adolescents experience:

‘Because society still has no clue how to work with a child with special needs because they are always kept on the sidelines. You know, like the little black sheep who is pushed aside because they are special … They need to be surrounded by people who care.’ (Participant 4, teacher, male)

This encounter illustrated how stigma and exclusion are not only interpersonal issues but can be strengthened through school cultures, peer norms and institutional practices that lack inclusive knowledge. The absence of informed, inclusive community structures was reported to foster isolation and emotional distress in adolescents. In response, the co-researchers advocated for the creation of community-based resource centres that could offer accessible support, information and early referrals for adolescents and their families. As one parent suggested:

‘There should be a place that parents know of that they can just go to and know they can get help and information about dyslexia.’ (Participant 1, parent, female)

To further bolster support, they proposed collaboration with existing organisations such as South-African Teachers’ Union (SAOU), National Professional Teachers’ Organisation of South Africa (NAPTOSA), government bodies and non-governmental organizations to help train parents and teachers and raise awareness through community outreach initiatives. Media platforms were also identified as important tools for disseminating accurate information about dyslexia to wider audiences, reducing stigma and increasing public empathy.

Transforming public and school-based perceptions of dyslexia was seen as vital to supporting adolescents’ EWB. The co-researchers shared difficult experiences of stigmatisation and labelling, with adolescents often being called names such as ‘dumb’, ‘lazy’ or ‘naughty’ by uninformed adults. These negative labels shaped how others treated them, which, in turn, eroded their self-esteem. In contrast, the data underscored that adolescents with dyslexia possess significant cognitive strengths, particularly in areas such as visual–spatial reasoning and can thrive when supported appropriately. As one expert explained:

‘I annually test many children with dyslexia. What stands out for me is that children with dyslexia are an intelligent group … These individuals become outstanding engineers and architects, they can do any job, including becoming teachers or even brain surgeons … due to their significant talent for thinking in 3D.’ (Participant 3, teacher, female)

Unfortunately, some teachers still lacked the necessary knowledge to recognise these strengths or provide supportive responses. The emotional consequences were profound, as shared by a teacher who had lived experience with dyslexia:

‘I have dyslexia and, as an adult, I have always struggled with self-confidence … You know they are going to think you are dumb, and it’s as if it never ends … it left scars.’ (Participant 1, teacher, female)

Parents, too, expressed frustration at being dismissed when they raised concerns with teachers or suggested helpful interventions. In some cases, repeated efforts to advocate for their children went ignored. One parent shared:

‘I sent 12 emails to the school, explaining that I was sure my child had dyslexia … We worked hard, shed tears, and yet the teacher called my child “dumb” … This lack of understanding and support caused my child significant anxiety.’ (Participant 4, parent, female)

Although these accounts are personal, they reflect broader systemic challenges in home–school communication and accountability across communities. In many cases, responses to parental concerns depend more on individual persistence than on clear policies or shared procedures. This connects to earlier themes of training and quality education, as collaboration is weakened when teachers lack the capacity, time or institutional guidance to engage constructively with parents.

In response, the co-researchers proposed school-based support groups involving parents, learner-support teachers, and relevant professionals. Across the three PALAR cycles, they also co-developed a booklet that summarises key challenges and practical strategies to build shared understanding and strengthen community awareness and advocacy for adolescents’ EWB. This detailed analysis of Cycle 2 and 3 will be addressed in a future article to allow for greater depth. Overall, the findings from Cycle 1 suggest that protecting EWB depends on coordinated community awareness, structured school-level collaboration and clear referral pathways, with teacher–parent partnerships working best when supported by systems that reduce stigma and sustain inclusive practice.

Discussion and conclusion

This study examined how teacher–parent collaboration can support the EWB of adolescents living with dyslexia through a participatory process. Using PALAR, teachers and parents collaborated as co-researchers. They drew on their lived experiences and contextual knowledge to reflect critically on shared challenges. Together, they co-developed strategies to address these challenges.

The study advances dyslexia research by positioning EWB as a core outcome, not merely a by-product of academic support. Because adolescence intensifies pressures related to identity, peer comparison and rising academic demands, the findings highlight the protective value of strengths-based, context-sensitive collaboration, consistent accommodations and supportive relationships for sustaining self-efficacy, belonging and coping. Findings further suggest that effective support depends on early identification, access to quality education, responsive support strategies, ongoing teacher development and empowered parental involvement, underpinned by strong teacher–parent partnerships. The study also underscores the importance of community engagement and challenging negative perceptions of dyslexia, as limited societal and institutional support can leave families and teachers isolated and learners vulnerable to stigma and emotional strain. Holistic, inclusive, community-driven approaches are therefore needed to support adolescents academically, emotionally and socially.

The primary contribution of this article lies in its in-depth exploration of EWB with dyslexia. The insights generated in Cycle 1 not only illuminate this underexplored dimension but also informed the development of targeted strategies and guidelines that were subsequently examined in greater depth during Cycles 2 and 3. A comprehensive discussion of these strategies falls beyond the scope of this article and, if presented in abbreviated form could compromise the quality and coherence of the analysis; they will therefore be elaborate on in a future article.

Acknowledgements

This article includes content that overlaps with research originally conducted as part of Marijke Benson’s doctoral thesis titled ‘Parent-teacher collaboration for supporting the emotional well-being of adolescents living with dyslexia’, submitted to the Faculty of Education, North-West University in 2024. The thesis was supervised by Mariëtte Koen. Portions of the data, analysis, and discussion have been revised, updated and adapted for publication as a journal article. The original thesis is currently under embargo and will only be available 2 years after submission. The authors affirm that this article complies with ethical standards for secondary publication, and appropriate acknowledgement has been made of the original work.

OpenAI (ChatGPT, 2025) was used to brainstorm structure and phrasing during the early drafting of this article. All intellectual contributions and final content are the result of the authors’ work. The content was reviewed and edited by the authors, who take full responsibility for its accuracy.

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Mariëtte Koen: Supervision, Writing – review & editing. Marijke Benson: Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. All authors reviewed the article, contributed to the discussion of results, approved the final version for submission and publication, and take responsibility for the integrity of its findings.

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author, Marijke Benson. The data are not publicly available because of restrictions for containing information that could compromise the privacy of research participants.

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article’s results, findings and content.

References