Recently, the introduction of the CAPS for Coding and Robotics Foundation phase Grade R – Grade 3, intermediate phase (Grade 4 – Grade 6) and Senior phase (Grade 7 – Grade 9) (Department of Basic Education 2024), which aims to develop science, technology, engineering, arts and mathematics (STEAM) learning. In principle, coding and robotics are now formal subjects in the curriculum aimed at developing children’s computational thinking skills. The purpose of introducing coding and robotics as a school subject is to establish a connection between the 4th (4IR) and 5th (5IR) industrial revolutions (Gorrah & Papers 2024). It remains unclear how universities are preparing preservice teachers to teach coding and robotics, and to what extent this is being done. A study by Gravett, Molaodi and Mofokeng (2025) reports on the introduction of a coding and robotics club in a South African university to formally introduce preservice teachers to coding and robotics. Firstly, preservice teachers valued the development of competencies, especially creativity; secondly, they gained valuable insights into teaching, particularly by using Scratch to enrich lessons. In his course, students are taught how to code digitally, using software such as Scratch and Octostudio. They also learn how to code manually using LEGO^® tool kits. These are technical skills related to coding and robotics that teachers must be prepared for. Bezuidenhout (2021) notes that while these technical skills are important, children must be taught the language of coding and robotics. In her study, she introduced coding and robotics to the dialogue-reading programme, which is a series of books written in English that introduce children to the language of coding and robotics. These books offer a conceptual framework for developing young children’s vocabulary in areas such as artificial intelligence (AI), coding and robotics. The story plots also present opportunities for dramatisation (Khasu 2025; Khasu & Henning 2024). The dialogue-reading books are only accessible in English, and most South African classrooms are multilingual; therefore, preservice teachers must be prepared to teach in these contexts (Mashinini 2024). The recent rollout of Mother Tongue Bilingual-based Education (MTBbE) in South Africa, which is aimed at ensuring that learners grasp complex concepts in their most familiar language while developing proficiency in English, in core subjects such as Mathematics and Natural Sciences and Technology, rather than abruptly switching to English-only instruction in Grade 4 (Mbude 2020). It is against this backdrop that I designed a course on playwriting for final-year students that formed part of one of their assessments on teaching literacy in the African languages. Preservice teachers were tasked with creating classroom plays about artificial intelligence concepts, such as coding and robotics, in Sesotho or isiZulu. The aim was to develop children’s vocabulary of AI-related vocabulary that includes coding and robotics in Sesotho and isiZulu, which can benefit children when they practically code. In South Africa, most Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) programmes do not prepare students to teach in an African language in the intermediate phase (Grade 4 – Grade 6) of schooling (Mahlambi & Mawela 2021). Although teaching other concepts in the curriculum was not the aim of this study, the findings can suggest how preservice teachers can use classroom plays as a viable pedagogical approach to strengthen children’s understanding of difficult mathematics, science or technology concepts in an African language.

Fennessey (1995) describes the use of drama as an activity that stimulates the reading of literature in a variety of genres. Drama puts oral language development to use in a purposeful way that develops imagination and critical thinking, collaboration, respect for the way others think, attention and self-discipline (Gardiner & Anderson 2018). Drama enables children to journey into a particular role and to engage in learning in a way that is experienced in the imagination through the actions of another person. These are not skills that can be taught in the traditional way of teaching. Heath (1993) and Heathcote (2009) maintain that drama helps children understand others’ points of view (O’Neill 1993). Drama refers to the playwriting process as well as the rehearsal and practice aspects, leading up to the classroom performance when it morphs into classroom theatre. In this study, only the initial phase of the process of classroom plays has been included, namely, playwriting. Despite different views and types, the term ‘drama in education’ refers to a variety of modalities or ‘pedagogical genres’ of drama as a tool for learning (Anderson 2012; Heathcote 2009). Some of these may be used to stimulate creative writing or as a dramatisation of learning content across the curriculum, including science and mathematics concepts and procedures, and language teaching (Henning 1991). This usually unfolds when a teacher scaffolds learners’ roles within an imagined context but is also achieved by teaching content (Henning 1991). Advocates for drama as a pedagogical tool propose that it enables learners to combine their imagination with learning content and, importantly, take on the role of a ‘character’ (Anderson 2012). Such improvisation would be facilitated by the teacher, who builds on the actions and reactions of the learners while they are acting in a particular role. (Gray & Yang 2015; Pascoe 2014).

Drama activities are a powerful means of teaching language concepts, specifically when introducing new vocabulary (Aram & Mor 2009; Baldwin & Fleming 2003; Scharer 2022). The researchers propose that classroom play engages children in a process in which they not only acquire vocabulary but also provide an opportunity to use oral language (Baldwin & Fleming 2003; Pascoe 2014; Scharer 2022). Gray and Yang (2015) argue that classroom plays also create an opportunity for children to master and develop early academic language in a way that makes language acquisition contextually relevant because they are learning in a role as a character. Shapopi-Shingenge (2023) advises that academic language should be introduced in the early grades. In addition to oral language development, learners also read and write when they write classroom plays, on a much smaller scale, as part of the creative writing curriculum or as plays about the content of a given subject. When preparing for a classroom theatre ‘production’, learners not only read aloud for content but also with intonation, pauses and accentuation, which express meaning. I would argue that the use of classroom plays as pedagogical tools can help children not only practise the cognitive skills of reading and writing but also develop targeted vocabulary (Tunmer & Hoover 2019). The various components of language teaching are outlined in the South African curriculum policy framework. The revised curriculum also includes the inclusion of coding and robotics (Department of Basic Education 2024).

Vocabulary is commonly conceptualised as the repertoire of words known and used within a particular linguistic system, together with an understanding of their meanings and contextual use (Butler 2019). Within educational and emerging technological domains, vocabulary extends beyond general language knowledge to include specialised and conceptually dense terminology that shapes access to disciplinary knowledge, including foundational ideas in artificial intelligence. Vocabulary knowledge underpins learning, as limited lexical understanding constrains comprehension and the construction of meaning (Hiebert & Kamil 2005; Nagy & Townsend 2012). In this regard, academic and subject-specific vocabulary, including terminology associated with artificial intelligence, is unlikely to develop through everyday interaction alone and typically requires intentional pedagogical intervention (Jalongo & Sobolak 2011; Nagy, Diakidoy & Anderson 1991). This study positions classroom plays as a pedagogical approach that can mediate access to both general and specialised vocabulary. Engagement in drama-based activities enables learners to encounter and use new terminology in context, thereby supporting expressive and receptive language development as well as creative meaning-making (Baker Sennett, Matusov & Rogoff 2007). Such an approach is particularly relevant for introducing children to emerging fields such as artificial intelligence, where abstract concepts require contextualised and developmentally appropriate representation. Although learners enter formal schooling with an existing linguistic base in their primary language, described as Language One (Cummins 2000), they must also acquire the academic register required for schooling and disciplinary engagement (Shapopi-Shingenge 2023). Drama-based pedagogy offers a context in which this transition can be supported through socially mediated interaction and purposeful language use.

Effective vocabulary instruction requires deliberate and sustained opportunities for engagement with words and their meanings (Andersen 2004). Drama texts, such as classroom plays, provide an embodied and interactive environment in which vocabulary is not encountered as decontextualised lists but as part of meaning-making practices in situated contexts (Brown 2017). In this way, learners develop deeper lexical knowledge and strategies for independent word learning. However, vocabulary acquisition remains a complex and gradual process that depends on repetition, contextual variation and opportunities for application (Leung 2008). Assessing vocabulary development, therefore, requires attention not only to the breadth of words known but also to learners’ ability to use these words productively and appropriately (Hiebert & Kamil 2005).

Henderson and James (2018) further indicate that vocabulary learning is influenced by existing knowledge, with significant variation in learners’ ability to acquire new words through exposure to texts such as stories. This highlights the need for carefully designed pedagogical strategies that account for individual differences and optimise conditions for word learning (Houston-Price, Howe & Lintern 2014). Explicit instruction has been identified as particularly effective in supporting vocabulary acquisition, as it enhances both semantic understanding and appropriate usage (Biemiller 2004; Butler 2019; Houston-Price et al. 2014). This perspective aligns with broader discussions on structured instructional approaches, including work on learners with diverse needs (Mason, Otero & Andrews 2022; Yaghmour & Obaidat 2022). Within this framework, classroom plays can be understood not merely as creative activities but also as deliberate, structured interventions that facilitate engagement with both academic and artificial intelligence-related vocabulary. Figure 1 presents the instructional implications for promoting word knowledge.

Frequent and purposeful exposure to targeted vocabulary increases the likelihood that learners will internalise and retrieve word meanings for use in academic contexts (Alshraideh & Alahmadi 2020). In early literacy instruction, such words are often introduced as sight words, where recognition is prioritised (Nash & Snowling 2006). However, this approach may limit deeper lexical processing if learners are not supported to engage with graphemic and phonemic structures. From an academic and artificial intelligence vocabulary perspective, this limitation is significant, as understanding specialised terminology requires more than visual recognition. Learners must engage with the semantic, morphological and contextual dimensions of terms to use them meaningfully. When target vocabulary is embedded within disciplinary or thematic contexts, learners are better positioned to understand how such terms function within sentences and broader discourse practices (Shapopi-Shingenge 2023). This is particularly relevant for artificial intelligence-related vocabulary, which often consists of abstract and conceptually dense terms that require contextualisation for meaningful uptake. While the identification of key vocabulary in texts, for example, through highlighting or typographical emphasis, can support focused attention, this strategy is most effective when combined with explicit explanation and guided engagement (Biemiller & Boote 2006).

Explicit vocabulary instruction remains central to developing both receptive and productive language competencies. Providing clear definitions, examples and opportunities for application enables learners to build robust lexical networks that support reading, writing and oral communication (Razali & Razali 2013). In addition, continued access to target vocabulary in written form reinforces retention and supports independent use (Nash & Snowling 2006). Within this framework, drama-based pedagogies offer a productive space for integrating explicit instruction with contextualised practice. When preservice teachers design classroom plays that incorporate targeted academic and artificial intelligence vocabulary, they create opportunities for learners to encounter, rehearse and apply specialised terminology in meaningful and socially mediated contexts. Vocabulary knowledge is therefore not only foundational to receptive skills such as reading and listening but also to participation in disciplinary discourse (Brown 2017). The integration of targeted vocabulary within classroom plays provides a pedagogical mechanism for bridging everyday language and specialised domains such as artificial intelligence while simultaneously equipping preservice teachers with adaptable strategies for their professional practice. Conceptually, this study draws on Shulman’s notion of signature pedagogies (Shulman 2005), positioning classroom plays as practices that induct learners into disciplinary ways of thinking and acting, alongside Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, which emphasises socially mediated learning and the co-construction of meaning through language, interaction and guided participation (Veresov 2017; Vygotsky 1987).

The theoretical and conceptual framing of this study is informed by both Shulman’s (1986, 1987) model of pedagogical content knowledge and Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory. Shulman proposes that teaching requires specialised forms of knowledge, including subject content, pedagogy and an understanding of learners. His later work on signature pedagogies (Shulman 2005) extends this perspective by emphasising the distinctive ways in which future professionals are taught to think, perform, and act within their disciplines. In parallel, Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory foregrounds the role of social interaction, language and mediated activity in the development of higher-order thinking, positioning learning as a collaborative and contextually situated process. Within teacher education, these frameworks intersect in meaningful ways. Signature pedagogies can be understood as structured, socially mediated practices through which disciplinary knowledge is constructed and enacted. As observed by Kortjass and Mbatha (2021), teacher education institutions function as spaces where professional identities are cultivated, and where preservice teachers engage with pedagogical practices that reflect the norms of their field. In this study, classroom playwriting is conceptualised as a potential signature pedagogy (Gardiner & Anderson 2018), through which preservice teachers are apprenticed into the practices of integrating drama, language and subject content.

Firstly, I drew from Shulman’s (2005) signature pedagogy framework. He identifies three dimensions of a signature pedagogy, namely surface structure, deep structure and implicit structure as noted in Figure 2. The surface structure refers to observable teaching and learning practices, while the deep structure reflects underlying assumptions about how knowledge is best taught. The implicit structure relates to professional values, dispositions and ethical commitments. In this study, these dimensions are evident in how preservice teachers engaged with playwriting as both a pedagogical strategy and a means of mediating disciplinary knowledge. Their participation in a culture module introduced them to drama, music and dance for curriculum delivery, but the playwriting experience provided a more sustained and situated engagement. From a sociocultural perspective, this process can be understood as mediated learning, where language, collaboration and cultural tools such as drama support the development of new forms of knowledge. The playwriting activity not only enhanced preservice teachers’ practical engagement with teaching through drama but also challenged their assumptions about integrating disciplinary discourse, including artificial intelligence vocabulary, into their pedagogical practices.

Secondly, I drew from Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory (Veresov 2017), focusing on the zone of proximal development to explore student-teachers’ playwriting activity. I specifically foreground the view of Vygotsky (1987), who introduced his view of children’s play in a multidimensional way. He proposed that play comprises art performance, self-expression, imagination and roleplay. This component of the framework of the study follows the ‘classic’ Vygotskian triangle (Engeström 1999). The classic Vygotskian ‘triangle’ of activity in what Engeström (1999) referred to as ‘first generation activity theory’ (AT). It is a theory that has been used to understand individual behaviour by examining how they interact with their environment. Mediation is a key theoretical idea behind activity because our everyday lived experiences are significantly mediated using tools and symbols. Therefore, activity theory helps to frame our understanding of such semiotic mediation (Veresov 2017). Semiotic mediation is concerned with the cultural mediation of mental development through acts of meaning (Hasan 2004:48). In this study, the lecturer served as the human mediator in the playwriting activity, as highlighted in Figure 3.

Based on Figure 3, the unit of analysis of the study is the playwriting activity that preservice teachers participated in and how they made meaning of the activity (Engeström 1999¹) of their engagement with the course and the outcome of their work. The leading activity in which they were engaged was writing plays, and the outcome was envisaged to be plays with pedagogical value. In the programme module, which is the backdrop for my study, the preservice teachers were introduced to some of the terms used in the literature about play theory, educational drama, children’s theatre, and so forth. The study thus proceeded with a bifocal (Shulman’s PCK and signature pedagogy) conceptual framework to show the various fields of knowledge and practice related to the pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), specifically regarding the third component of PCK as shown in Figure 3. The system of signs (Sobkin 2017) for the framework of my study follows the ‘classic’ Vygotsky triangle (Engeström 1999).

In this qualitative case study, I was informed by Yin’s (2018) definition of the various case study types; I employed a descriptive case study design. This was informed by the process of how I interpreted the phenomenon (How do student-teachers engage in the B.Ed. course about classroom playwriting on the topic of AI-related use of language?) and the real-life context in which it occurred. This phenomenon, which is also the unit of analysis, included analysing the participants’ activities and the artefacts that they had designed, using selected methods of analysis. Henning, Van Rensburg and Smit (2004) define the term ‘method’ as a systematic way of performing an activity, whereas ‘methodology’ refers to the:

In the discussion of the findings, the work of Shulman (2005), coupled with Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory (Veresov 2017; Vygotsky 1987), provides a theoretical lens for the interpretation of the outcome of the study. In addition, student-teachers experienced Vygotskian psychology as a component of PCK knowledge for teachers, specifically regarding the generation of the Zone of proximal development (ZPD), which is the gap between what the learner can do independently and what they can do with the help of a more knowlegdable other in learning. Even though the term ZPD is widely used, it is, according to Veresov (2004). He refers to the notion of ‘dramatic collisions’ as an example of a term from stagecraft applied to the development of understanding as the catalyst for development and a realisation that more needs to be learned. The term used by Vygotsky to show how learning increases with ‘instruction’ is the ‘zone of proximal development’. Veresov (2017:36) refers to a publication by Vygotsky – The problem of teaching and mental development: ‘We have no hesitation after all that has been said in stating the essential characteristic of teaching to be the creation of the zone of proximate development’ (in Veresov 2017:36).

The findings further indicated that classroom plays are a valuable method for introducing student-teachers to using plays as an approach for teaching vocabulary (Khasu 2024; Khasu & Henning 2024). In this study, students were introduced. In this way, students can introduce new reading material that integrates language content with AI-related vocabulary. Doing so was certainly not an easy task. During the interviews, student-teachers expressed their views about their initial experience of the playwriting activity. Most of them indicated that writing classroom plays with an AI theme in Sesotho or isiZulu was challenging. Figure 9 is a graphical representation of the responses to one of the interview questions about their experiences of the playwriting activity.

The findings in this study suggest that classroom plays may be a valuable pedagogical tool for teaching vocabulary (Biemiller & Boote 2006; Gray & Yang 2015). In this study, the students were challenged to think creatively to create the isiZulu and Sesotho AI terminology in their dialogue. The playwriting activity added to their repertoire of teaching methods, which could feature in their professional teaching (Shulman 2005). Furthermore, it was evident that semiotic mediation can be a complex activity when different languages are involved (Kozulin 2003). Doing such an activity in groups expanded their students’ general vocabulary of Sesotho or isiZulu and that of AI-related vocabulary, which means that the objective of the learning activity was reached. The findings of this study suggest practical uses, while also showing some limits and areas for future research. Teacher education programmes should include play-based and drama activities to support vocabulary learning, especially in multilingual settings. Group playwriting helped students expand both everyday and subject-specific vocabulary, showing the value of creative, collaborative learning. However, the study was performed in one context, so the findings may not be transferable to other contexts. Another limitation is that the short duration of the study also makes it hard to determine the long-term effects of this pedagogical approach. Working across languages is complex; learners may need more support. Future research should explore the long-term impact of classroom plays as a pedagogical tool for vocabulary learning.