Abstract
Background: A safe school environment fosters effective teaching and learning. This study reconceptualises South African high school teachers’ and students’ attitudes towards enhancing school discipline.
Aim: Drawing from Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory and Bandura’s social learning theory, this study explored teachers’ and students’ perceptions of student discipline and how it can be enhanced in South African high schools.
Setting: The study was conducted in selected public high schools in uMkhanyakude District Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, where discipline challenges are frequently encountered.
Methods: A questionnaire survey was administered to 191 respondents (42 teachers and 149 students) from five randomly selected schools. Descriptive, bivariate, and multivariate analyses were used to generate findings.
Results: The study found that both teachers and students believe student discipline needs to be improved. While punishment for misconduct is considered acceptable, respondents prefer non-violent, corrective measures such as detention, extra homework, and clean-up duties. The findings show that effective discipline requires collaborative efforts from both teachers and parents. A positive, non-punitive approach to discipline is favoured.
Conclusion: The study recommends that disciplinary practices in South African schools remain aligned with the Constitution and Schools Act, which prohibit corporal punishment and promote restorative and non-discriminatory approaches. Strong school leadership is crucial for the consistent and equitable implementation of policies.
Contribution: This study contributes to school discipline discourse by highlighting the importance of rights-based, legally compliant disciplinary practices and the significant role of leadership in fostering supportive learning environments.
Keywords: teacher development, student discipline, classroom management, school leadership, South Africa.
Introduction
South African schools face persistent challenges concerning student discipline and safety. Recent studies have documented school violence, declining student behaviour and adverse effects on teaching and learning (Abreu et al. 2025; Ntshangase & Naidu 2014; Obadire & Sinthumule 2021; Saurombe et al. 2024). Although a legal and policy framework exists, including the South African Constitution, the Schools Act (Republic of South Africa 1996a, 1996b) and international obligations under the Convention on the Rights of the Child, implementation remains inconsistent. Schools are legally required to establish codes of conduct that ensure safety and discipline while upholding learners’ rights (Republic of South Africa 1996a, 1996b).
To address these shortcomings, this study is guided by Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological systems theory and Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory. Bronfenbrenner’s model illustrates that student discipline cannot be understood in isolation but is shaped by interactions across multiple contexts (Bandura & Walters 1977). These include schools, families, communities and social systems, all of which may either support or undermine discipline (Bronfenbrenner 2000; El Zaatari & Maalouf 2022). According to El Zaatari and Maalouf (2022), Bandura’s social learning theory emphasises that students’ behaviours and attitudes towards discipline are learned and reinforced through observing significant role models, especially teachers and parents. Together, these theories highlight the complex interplay of structural, social and personal factors that shape student conduct in South African schools. This theoretical lens underlines the need to move beyond legal compliance to examine the motivational (Mkhasibe & Mncube 2020), psychological and contextual factors that influence discipline, as well as the leadership practices and teacher-parent collaborations that can enhance it (Purwandoko & Anggraini). Through exploring these dimensions, the study aims to fill existing gaps in the literature and contribute a recent understanding of school discipline, one that can inform policies and strategies responsive to the diverse realities of South African public high schools.
Despite a strong legal and policy foundation for school safety and discipline, existing research reveals persistent challenges in effectively implementing these provisions in practice (Egeberg, McConney & Price 2021; Hallinger & Heck 2010; Manamela 2021; Mkhasibe & Mncube 2020; Mugizi, Ampeire & Kemeri 2022; Purwandoko & Anggraini 2023; Segalo & Rambuda 2018). Prior studies (Obadire & Sinthumule 2021; Rossouw 2003) show that teachers often feel ill-equipped to manage increasingly complex behavioural issues in schools and that student misconduct continues to disrupt teaching and learning. Furthermore, much of the current literature emphasises legislative compliance rather than understanding the underlying attitudes, perceptions and contextual factors that shape discipline management. This indicates a critical theoretical gap; while discipline policies exist, their application and effectiveness are influenced by teacher-student relationships, school leadership styles and socio-cultural contexts that have not been adequately theorised.
Against this backdrop, this study aims to explore teachers’ and students’ perceptions of school discipline, moving beyond policy discourse to examine the motivational, psychological and contextual dimensions that drive discipline-related behaviours in South African public high schools. This study, therefore, explored teachers’ and students’ perceptions of student discipline and ways of enhancing it in selected South African high schools. Respondents for this study are sampled from five randomly selected public high schools in the uMkhanyakude District Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
Theoretical framework and literature review
This study is underpinned by Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner 1979, 2000), which posits that a child’s behaviour is shaped by multiple interacting systems, including the microsystem (teachers and parents), mesosystem (school–home relationships) and exosystem (community and policy). Applying this lens, in this study, enables a better understanding of how teacher development, school leadership practices and parental styles collectively shape student discipline (Bronfenbrenner 2000; El Zaatari & Maalouf 2022). Furthermore, Bandura’s social learning theory (1977) provides additional insight into how students’ behavioural responses are learned through observation of authority figures, including teachers (Bandura & Walters 1977). In this study, these theoretical perspectives guide the exploration of discipline and teacher development as interconnected constructs rather than isolated phenomena.
Student discipline in South African high schools
The literature on student discipline in South African high schools highlights the complicated relationship between teacher attitudes (Rossouw 2003; Segalo & Rambuda 2018), leadership practices (Manamela 2021) and the broader educational environment (Prins et al. 2019). Mabeba and Prinsloo (2000) describe discipline in a learning environment as fostering order, providing guidance and regulating academic engagement. Gootman (2008) views discipline as a tool to help children develop self-control, motivation and a sense of self-worth while enhancing their critical-thinking skills. Discipline, therefore, involves teaching children to distinguish between right and wrong, recognise acceptable and unacceptable behaviour, respect the rights of others and cultivate the ability to manage their emotions, frustrations and everyday stresses through self-control. This emphasis on self-regulation underscores the role of the teacher as a developmental agent who models and reinforces appropriate behaviour, making discipline an inherently relational process (Bandura & Walters 1977).
The role of school leadership in discipline management
School leadership plays a central role in maintaining discipline, with research indicating that leadership styles fostering positive relationships contribute to improved disciplinary outcomes (Mugizi et al. 2022). As discussed by Purwandoko & Anggraini (2023), transformational leadership, which involves inspiring and motivating staff towards a shared vision and fostering positive relationships, has been found to create effective classroom environments that support better behaviour management and are linked to better results from learners. This aligns with Hallinger and Heck’s (2010) argument that collaborative leadership increases school performance, particularly in academic and disciplinary contexts. Beyond leadership, teacher development is necessary for promoting effective discipline strategies. Silfani, Basikin and Hasan (2025) emphasise the need for professional growth programmes focused on classroom management, as teachers equipped with practical strategies are better positioned to address disciplinary challenges (Egeberg et al. 2021; Martin & Bertram 2024; Mkhasibe & Mncube 2020). The concept of distributed leadership, which empowers teachers, is also identified as key to successful school change and discipline management (Hoppey & McLeskey 2010). Alam, Fakhruddin and Raharjo (2024) also emphasise teacher training, but they do not assess whether current programmes sufficiently prepare teachers to manage students affected by trauma or socio-economic hardship. Importantly, teacher leadership and professional development must be viewed as integral to improving school discipline rather than as separate domains. Without a robust theoretical lens and holistic teacher support, discipline policies may be misapplied or unsustainable, especially in under-resourced contexts.
Theoretical gaps in the literature
While existing studies offer valuable insights into learner discipline in South African high schools, this study identifies several theoretical gaps and limitations. Rossouw (2003) and Segalo and Rambuda (2018), for example, discuss the influence of teacher attitudes on student discipline; however, their analyses remain primarily descriptive and fail to account for the contextual variations across different socio-economic and cultural settings within South Africa. Given the country’s diverse schooling environments, a better exploration of how teacher attitudes interact with specific local challenges (such as overcrowded classrooms, resource disparities and community influences) would provide a deeper understanding of the issue. Similarly, Manamela (2021) emphasises leadership practices about learner discipline, yet the study does not engage with the changing effectiveness of different leadership styles across school types. While transformational leadership is widely praised (Purwandoko & Anggraini 2023), its applicability in under-resourced schools remains less explored. The assumption that transformational leadership universally leads to better disciplinary outcomes overlooks the structural limitations many South African schools face, such as inadequate teacher support, high learner-teacher ratios and systemic governance issues.
A theoretical framework is required to connect discipline management with teacher development. Existing research acknowledges the significance of teacher competencies and leadership, but often overlooks the psychological and institutional pressures that constrain teachers’ capacity to implement discipline policies. Moreover, teacher development cannot be examined in isolation from the systemic challenges (such as legal restrictions, parental involvement and socio-economic inequalities) that shape the school context. This underscores the need to explicitly theorise the interplay between teacher development and student discipline using an integrative lens (Bandura 1977; Bronfenbrenner 1979).
The assertion by Dube (2025) that collaborative leadership improves school performance is significant, but their study is primarily based on developed contexts. The transferability of their findings to South African schools, mainly in rural and township settings where hierarchical leadership and top-down management often prevail, requires further empirical validation. Similarly, Mugizi et al. (2022) correlate headteachers’ leadership styles with student discipline but do not interrogate how external factors, such as community violence and socio-economic instability, may dilute the effectiveness of school-based leadership interventions. According to Silfani et al. (2025), teacher development is decisive for effective discipline strategies. Nevertheless, existing research primarily focuses on classroom management techniques rather than the systemic issues that hinder their implementation.
Challenges in school discipline management
The studies confirm that leadership styles influence discipline enforcement (Manamela 2021; Mugizi et al. 2022; Ibrahim 2022), yet they highlight a theoretical gap in how leadership interventions can be tailored to different school contexts (Mrutu, Anywar & Rachael 2025). Current literature (e.g, Mrutu et al. 2025) does not sufficiently explore how leadership styles interact with socio-economic challenges affecting discipline enforcement in South African schools. Similarly, most studies support the notion that inconsistent parenting affects school discipline (Khalid et al. 2025; Rossouw 2003; Segalo & Rambuda 2018; Tikoko & Kimame 2022), but less has been said about how schools can effectively collaborate with parents to address discipline issues. In other words, while existing literature discusses the impact of parenting on student behaviour, it lacks insights into structured parent–teacher partnerships for discipline management. Teacher development is widely recognised as essential for managing student discipline (Egeberg et al. 2021; Silfani et al. 2025). Although teacher training is emphasised, the literature often treats teacher discipline skills in isolation from the school’s leadership practices and parental contributions. This fragmented view weakens the understanding of discipline as an ecosystem shaped by both internal and external forces. A tiered intervention approach could be implemented, starting with Level 1 for minor infractions, which may involve verbal warnings and reflective activities like journaling on the consequences of misbehaviour. Level 2, addressing moderate offences, could incorporate restorative justice sessions where students engage in self-reflection and peer mediation. For serious offences at Level 3, temporary suspension paired with mandatory counselling sessions could help address underlying behavioural issues.
While other scholars emphasise training teachers in discipline strategies (Musundire 2025; Ndaba, Govender & Naidoo 2025), it does not address how policies and legal limitations affect their practical implementation (Zondo & Mncube 2024). In South African education history, legal and institutional frameworks significantly shape disciplinary practices (Mkhasibe & Mncube 2020). According to Mkhasibe and Mncube (2020), it has been confirmed that legal restrictions limit disciplinary measures. Still, they also uncover that many teachers avoid enforcing discipline because of the fear of backlash from parents and students. Existing literature discusses legal constraints, but it does not sufficiently explore the psychological and institutional pressures that deter teachers from taking disciplinary action. Recent studies (such as those of Purwandoko & Anggraini 2023) find that while many respondents support alternative discipline strategies, such as extra schoolwork, perceptions vary significantly between teachers and students.
The role of school governing bodies in discipline
The governing body is crucial in establishing and maintaining school discipline (Ibrahim 2022; Mkhasibe & Mncube 2020; Mrutu et al. 2025). It has a legal responsibility to ensure that appropriate structures and procedures are in place so that disciplinary actions against learners who display misconduct are administered fairly and reasonably, in line with the South African Constitution (Republic of South Africa 1996b) and the South African Schools Act (Republic of South Africa 1996a). This, for example, requires avoiding unlawful methods of discipline, such as corporal punishment, and using fair, policy-compliant measures that uphold learners’ rights (Fréchette & Romano 2017; Zuberi, Seni & Sungwa 2025). According to the South African Schools Act, only the principal has the authority to initiate disciplinary action in cases of serious misconduct (Republic of South Africa 1996a).
Gender, role and grade level influence perceptions of school discipline and punishment
Recent studies suggest that perceptions of school discipline and punishment are influenced by gender, role (teacher versus student) and grade level (Potokri & Lumadi 2025). Research has shown that male students often face harsher disciplinary actions compared to their female counterparts (Potokri & Lumadi 2025), which may be attributed to gender biases in classroom management (Skiba et al. 2002). Additionally, disparities in educational attainment between black men and women have been linked to differences in school experiences, including the likelihood of having repeated a grade, which explains a portion of the gender gap in high school completion rates (Lundberg 2023). Teachers’ perceptions of student behaviour can also vary based on the teacher’s gender and experience, potentially affecting disciplinary outcomes (Watson, Plump & Durham 2022). Furthermore, students’ grade levels influence their views on discipline, with younger students often perceiving disciplinary measures as less fair compared to older students (Watson et al. 2022).
According to Potokri and Lumadi (2025), integrating these concepts into one coherent framework is critical. Teacher development and discipline management cannot be studied separately because teacher skill levels, leadership support, parental collaboration and the socio-cultural environment collectively determine how discipline policies are enacted. Hence, this study situates discipline management at the intersection of teacher development and leadership practices to fully understand the research problem and address its theoretical and practical gaps. From the literature reviewed, it has been noted that student discipline is a multidimensional issue that requires an integrated focus on teacher professional growth, leadership styles, parental partnerships and the broader socio-economic and policy environment. This integrative view directly informs the current research process, providing a holistic framework to explore discipline management and teacher development together.
Research methods and design
Given the prevalence of violence among students in public high schools in KwaZulu-Natal, as Khuzwayo, Taylor and Connolly (2016) reported, this study employed a quantitative research approach to analyse perceptions of discipline and punishment systematically. Respondents were randomly selected from five public high schools in the uMkhanyakude District Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. A questionnaire survey, as recommended by Veal (2011) for generating quantified data, was used to collect responses from both teachers and students. While seven schools were initially approached through their principals for participation consent, only five agreed to partake in the study. A structured, self-administered questionnaire was distributed to randomly selected teachers and students from these consenting schools during class break periods. The sampling method employed was simple random sampling. The questionnaire primarily consisted of close-ended questions (37 items in total), including 7 demographic questions and 30 Likert-scale statements (8 on perceptions of different parenting styles, 11 on perceptions of discipline enhancement and 11 on barriers to disciplinary punishments) and was distributed to 50 teachers (10 per school) and 200 students (40 per school, Grades 10–12).
The final response rate was 84% for teachers (42 respondents) and 75% for students (149 respondents), with all returned questionnaires deemed usable for analysis. The questionnaire design was informed by variables identified in prior empirical studies on school discipline (Khalid et al. 2025; Musundire 2025; Ndaba et al. 2025; Rossouw 2003; Segalo & Rambuda 2018; Tikoko & Kimame 2022; Watson et al. 2022; Zondo & Mncube 2024). These variables were either categorical or ordinal, with the latter (including perceptions of parenting styles, discipline enhancement and barriers to disciplinary punishment) measured on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly agree to 5 = strongly disagree).
Data were analysed using IBM’s SPSS version 29.0.2.0 software (IBM Corporation 2023). Descriptive statistics were initially computed for all questionnaire variables, including frequencies, means and standard deviations. Reliability analysis was performed on the ordinal variables using Cronbach’s alpha to assess internal consistency. A Cronbach’s alpha value between 0.5 and 0.7 is generally considered acceptable for reliability (George & Mallery 2003; Hair et al. 2005). As Tavakol and Dennick (2011) note, a low Cronbach’s alpha may result from a limited number of items measuring a construct or poor interrelatedness among items. A Cronbach’s alpha threshold of 0.6 and above was deemed acceptable for this study. As ordinal variables in the study did not follow a normal distribution, as confirmed by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk tests (p < 0.001), non-parametric statistical tests were employed. The Mann–Whitney U test was used to compare differences in responses between two independent groups, ensuring the appropriateness of ordinal-dependent variables, dichotomous independent variables and violations of normality assumptions (George & Mallery 2003; Veal 2011). Additionally, Pearson’s chi-square test was conducted to assess the relationships between respondents’ profiles and general perceptions of school discipline, following methodological recommendations by Veal (2011).
Ethical considerations
Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the University of Zululand Research Ethics Committee (Certificate no: UZREC 171110-030PGD2023/72). Permission to conduct the study in selected schools was also granted by the KwaZulu-Natal Department of Education and school principals. Before data collection, all respondents were informed about the purpose, nature and potential risks of the study. Participation was entirely voluntary, and respondents were assured of confidentiality and anonymity. Informed consent forms were distributed to both teachers and students (and assent forms were provided to students under the age of 18), ensuring that respondents fully understood their rights, including the option to withdraw from the study at any time without consequence. Responses were kept securely, accessible only to the researcher, and data were reported in aggregate form to protect the identity of individual participants.
Results
Respondents’ profile and general perceptions
Table 1 presents the profile of respondents alongside general questions about discipline perceptions in schools.
| TABLE 1: Respondents’ profile and general questions (N = 191). |
The data in Table 1 show that male students represented the most respondents, and most participants were students in Grades 10 to 12. A striking 85% of respondents perceived students at their schools as generally disciplined, yet over 83% still felt that discipline needed to be enhanced, highlighting perceived shortcomings in current disciplinary practices. About two-thirds of respondents found punitive measures acceptable, and over 70% believed that disciplined students achieve better academically. These results are consistent with Rossouw (2003) and Ntshangase and Naidu (2014), who argue that discipline underpins a conducive learning environment. Similar recent findings by Zondo and Mncube (2024) and Musundire (2025) emphasise the vital link between discipline, behaviour and academic success in South Africa. Table 2 explores how perceptions about discipline differ between teachers and students.
| TABLE 2: Respondents’ profile versus general school discipline perception statements (N = 191). |
Analysis of Table 2 reveals that teachers are more inclined than students to assert that ‘student discipline needs to be enhanced’ and that ‘well-disciplined students perform academically better than ill-disciplined students’. This observation aligns with the findings by Segalo and Rambuda (2018), who reported that teachers often perceive a direct correlation between student discipline and academic performance. Table 3 presents perceptions of different parenting styles and their influence on student discipline.
| TABLE 3: Perceptions of different ‘parenting styles’ compared with respondents’ profile and general school discipline perception. |
Table 3 presents respondents’ levels of agreement with various parenting styles related to child discipline. These parenting approaches are often believed to influence children’s behaviour in school, either directly or indirectly. While respondents did not strongly disagree with any of the statements, two stand out because of their high mean scores, indicating substantial agreement. Table 4 summarises views on approaches to enhancing discipline in schools.
| TABLE 4: Perceptions of ‘discipline’ enhancement compared with respondents’ profile and general school discipline perception. |
Table 4 presents respondents’ views on strategies to improve discipline in high schools, highlighting three key statements that received the most support. The highest level of agreement was with the statement that ‘Parents can assist the school in disciplining misbehaved students’ (mean score = 2.23), followed by ‘Teachers should only discuss and reason with students to enhance discipline, and not punish them’ (mean score = 2.35), and ‘Teachers should punish students when they misbehave’ (mean score = 2.49). Table 5 highlights respondents’ views on barriers to enforcing discipline.
| TABLE 5: Perceptions of the barriers to disciplinary punishments compared with respondents’ profiles and general school discipline perception. |
The results in Table 5 show respondents’ perceptions of the barriers to disciplinary punishments. Two statements need to be discussed as the mean score for these statements shows a higher level of agreement than others: ‘the principal’s leadership style can hinder disciplinary punishments in high schools’, and ‘the parenting style for individual students can hinder disciplinary punishments’. These again show that respondents think parents and school leadership efforts are needed to instil discipline in high school students.
Discussion
Respondents’ views on discipline enhancement and acceptable punishments
The findings in Table 2 show that respondents generally believe that discipline in schools requires improvement. Interestingly, teachers were more inclined than students to agree that discipline must be enhanced and that well-disciplined students tend to perform better academically. This underlines a critical point that teachers view discipline as a cornerstone for learning, echoing findings by Segalo and Rambuda (2018) and Ntshangase and Naidu (2014), who assert that student discipline is closely tied to the academic environment. As students progressed to higher grades, they were more aware of the negative effects of indiscipline, suggesting that maturity and increased exposure to school policies may deepen students’ appreciation for discipline. Masingi (2017) supports this view, arguing that more mature students recognise the impact of misconduct on their academic achievements. These results highlight the need for disciplinary strategies that evolve alongside student development and maturity.
Differences in discipline perceptions by role and student maturity
Table 3 demonstrates differences between teachers and students concerning parenting and discipline at home. Teachers attributed discipline problems more strongly to parenting styles, agreeing that parents often overlook their children’s misbehaviour or lack consistent boundaries. Students, however, were more sympathetic to soft parenting and more likely to agree that they deserve autonomy during their free time. This reflects a generational gap where teachers emphasise discipline and structure, while students advocate for flexibility. The findings also underscore a significant tension between school and home expectations of discipline, aligning with Saurombe et al. (2024) and Ndaba et al. (2025), who note that parenting styles profoundly influence students’ conduct. Given these diverging views, the school’s discipline policies must acknowledge parental influence as well as students’ developmental need for autonomy. Furthermore, in line with South African legal protections against harsh discipline (Republic of South Africa 1996a, 1996b), any strategies must strike a careful balance between guidance and respect for children’s rights.
Effective discipline strategies and teacher–parent cooperation
As shown in Table 4, there is strong agreement across respondents that discipline requires collaboration between schools and parents. Teachers were notably more supportive of reasoning with students before resorting to punitive measures, yet they also acknowledged the need for consequences, especially when misconduct was serious. This resonates with the emphasis by Bakia-William (2024) and Zuberi et al. (2025), who highlight that while positive discipline is preferable, serious infractions may require stricter intervention. Additionally, teachers and students alike supported restorative strategies such as clean-up exercises, detention or extra homework as preferable forms of discipline. This points to a shared interest in constructive, non-violent discipline methods that correct misbehaviour without infringing on students’ dignity or rights, as required under South African legislation (Republic of South Africa 1996a). The findings illustrate the complex interplay between leadership, teacher expertise and parental involvement in enforcing discipline. Schools must leverage these partnerships to promote a disciplined and academically supportive environment (Makola 2023; Potokri & Lumadi 2025).
Barriers to implementing effective discipline policies
Table 5 explores the key selected barriers to applying effective discipline measures, which include leadership style, parental factors, legal constraints and fears of retaliation. Teachers expressed particular concern that leadership and legal restrictions can hinder their capacity to enforce discipline, often leaving them feeling powerless. This matches findings by Stanley (2014) and Makola (2023), who highlight systemic issues such as policy compliance and resource constraints as significant barriers. Moreover, most respondents noted that school discipline cannot improve without meaningful parental support. These findings underline the need for a holistic, collaborative approach that acknowledges the school’s legal obligations under the South African Schools Act and Constitution (Republic of South Africa 1996a, 1996b), while also offering school leaders the support to implement discipline measures fairly and consistently.
Parenting, legal frameworks and gender differences
Although discipline is a shared concern, respondents also acknowledged the impact of parenting styles, legal obligations and gender differences. Many attributed careless discipline to parenting shaped by socio-economic hardship, indicating that parental capacity to support school discipline is often constrained (Makola 2023; Potokri & Lumadi 2025). This finding underscores the need for schools to establish partnerships with parents and community stakeholders that consider these structural realities. Respondents also noted that legal protections influence disciplinary practices. Schools must align policies with the South African Constitution and the Schools Act (Republic of South Africa 1996a, 1996b), especially concerning the prohibition of corporal punishment (Bakia-William 2024; Zuberi et al. 2025). Finally, male respondents showed stronger support for punitive measures than female respondents, who expressed greater empathy for parental challenges. These gender differences echo patterns noted by Watson et al. (2022), suggesting that personal and cultural expectations about discipline shape respondents’ perceptions and must be considered when designing school policies.
Limitations and future research
This study focused on a single sample, which may not fully represent schools with different socio-economic and cultural profiles. The reliance on self-reported data could also introduce social desirability bias, especially concerning sensitive topics like punishment and parenting. Furthermore, the study did not capture the perspectives of parents or school administrators, limiting the completeness of its findings. Future research could triangulate survey data with interviews, observations or school discipline records to obtain a richer understanding of discipline practices. Comparative studies across diverse school types (such as urban, rural and private) would highlight contextual differences. Researchers might also assess the impact of restorative justice on student behaviour and performance and apply advanced multivariate techniques (e.g. regression, structural equation modelling [SEM] or cluster analysis) to better explain the links between discipline and academic outcomes.
Conclusion and recommendations
This study revealed that teachers and students across South African high schools recognise discipline as a multifaceted issue shaped by personal, familial and institutional factors. Drawing on Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory (1979), discipline emerges from nested environments, where the interactions between students, parents, schools and legal frameworks all contribute to behavioural expectations. Similarly, Bandura’s social learning theory (1977) underlines that students model behaviours they observe, especially from authority figures and caregivers. The findings highlight that, while both teachers and students support enhancing discipline and accept punishments in serious cases, they favour constructive, non-punitive strategies rooted in collaboration and guided by legal and ethical policies. Schools require strong leadership and teacher–parent cooperation to establish discipline that is developmental, consistent and culturally responsive. This underscores the need to navigate the South African Schools Act and Constitution thoughtfully, respecting children’s rights while fostering self-discipline and academic success.
With 83.4% of respondents indicating that student discipline requires improvement, schools should adopt structured disciplinary policies that integrate both corrective measures and rehabilitative strategies. As teachers emphasise discipline more than students, professional development programmes should equip teachers with alternative disciplinary strategies that align with South African child protection policies, such as the Children’s Act and the South African Schools Act. Based on the study findings and theoretical underpinnings, the following recommendations are made to strengthen teacher–parent partnerships, promote professional development for teachers, promote student involvement and maturity awareness and align policies with legal frameworks to encourage collaborative leadership:
- Schools should establish structured communication channels and parenting workshops to support discipline at home and align parenting practices with school policies. Collaborative initiatives with community organisations can address socio-economic constraints that influence parenting capacity.
- Implement ongoing training to equip teachers with practical, non-punitive discipline strategies informed by Bandura’s emphasis on positive role-modelling and reinforcement.
- Develop peer-support networks to help teachers manage discipline fairly and confidently within legal parameters.
- Integrate reflective activities and student-led initiatives that encourage self-regulation and awareness of the consequences of misbehaviour. Tailor discipline strategies to different grade levels, recognising that more mature students appreciate the impact of discipline on their academic success.
- Review school codes of conduct to ensure they comply with the South African Schools Act and Constitution while allowing schools to respond proportionally to misconduct. Educate teachers, students and parents on legal requirements around discipline to reduce fears of retaliation or legal repercussions.
Create regular spaces for dialogue among school leadership, teachers, parents and students to co-construct discipline policies that respect cultural and socio-economic realities.
Acknowledgements
Competing interests
The author declares that he has no financial or personal relationship that may have inappropriately influenced him in writing this article.
Author’s contributions
S.D.N. is the sole author of this research article.
Funding information
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Data availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author, S.D.N.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or the publisher. The author is responsible for this article’s results, findings and content.
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